Bump version: v2.21.1

[pre-commit.ci] pre-commit autoupdate (#2013 )
fix: support uv 0.4.10+ on Linux and update dependencies (#2008 )
2024-09-16 21:04:46 -04:00 · 2024-09-16 20:32:04 -04:00 · 2024-09-16 20:31:48 -04:00 · 2024-09-16 23:12:19 +01:00 · 2024-09-16 14:01:04 -04:00 · 2024-09-16 12:03:19 -04:00
74 changed files with 1148 additions and 646 deletions
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@ set -o xtrace

 if [ "$(uname -s)" == "Darwin" ]; then
  sudo softwareupdate --install-rosetta --agree-to-license
+else
+  docker run --rm --privileged docker.io/tonistiigi/binfmt:latest --install all
 fi

 $PYTHON --version
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ linux_x86_task:
    memory: 8G

  install_pre_requirements_script:
+    - docker run --rm --privileged docker.io/tonistiigi/binfmt:latest --install all
    - apt install -y python3-venv python-is-python3
  <<: *RUN_TESTS

@@ -30,6 +31,7 @@ linux_aarch64_task:
    memory: 4G

  install_pre_requirements_script:
+    - docker run --rm --privileged docker.io/tonistiigi/binfmt:latest --install all
    - apt install -y python3-venv python-is-python3
  <<: *RUN_TESTS

@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ jobs:
        merge-multiple: true

    - name: Generate artifact attestation for sdist and wheel
-      uses: actions/attest-build-provenance@173725a1209d09b31f9d30a3890cf2757ebbff0d # v1.1.2
+      uses: actions/attest-build-provenance@1c608d11d69870c2092266b3f9a6f3abbf17002c # v1.4.3
      with:
        subject-path: "dist/cibuildwheel-*"

@@ -22,13 +22,14 @@ jobs:
    steps:
    - uses: actions/checkout@v4
    - uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+      id: python
      with:
        python-version: "3.x"
    - uses: pre-commit/action@v3.0.1
    - name: Check manifest
-      run: pipx run nox -s check_manifest
+      run: pipx run --python "${{ steps.python.outputs.python-path }}" nox -s check_manifest
    - name: PyLint checks
-      run: pipx run nox -s pylint -- --output-format=github
+      run: pipx run --python "${{ steps.python.outputs.python-path }}" nox -s pylint -- --output-format=github

  test:
    name: Test on ${{ matrix.os }} (${{ matrix.python_version }})
@@ -49,18 +50,7 @@ jobs:
      with:
        python-version: ${{ matrix.python_version }}

-    - uses: yezz123/setup-uv@v4
-
-    # Install podman on this CI instance for podman tests on linux
-    # Snippet from: https://github.com/redhat-actions/podman-login/blob/main/.github/workflows/example.yml
-    - name: Install latest podman
-      if: runner.os == 'Linux'
-      run: |
-        . /etc/os-release
-        echo "deb https://download.opensuse.org/repositories/devel:/kubic:/libcontainers:/stable/xUbuntu_${VERSION_ID}/ /" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/devel:kubic:libcontainers:stable.list
-        curl -sSfL "https://download.opensuse.org/repositories/devel:/kubic:/libcontainers:/stable/xUbuntu_${VERSION_ID}/Release.key" | sudo apt-key add -
-        sudo apt-get update
-        sudo apt-get -y install podman
+    - uses: astral-sh/setup-uv@v3

    # free some space to prevent reaching GHA disk space limits
    - name: Clean docker images
@@ -69,6 +59,11 @@ jobs:
        docker system prune -a -f
        df -h

+    # for oci_container unit tests
+    - name: Set up QEMU
+      if: runner.os == 'Linux'
+      uses: docker/setup-qemu-action@v3
+
    - name: Install dependencies
      run: |
        uv pip install --system ".[test]"
@@ -114,7 +109,7 @@ jobs:
        output-dir: wheelhouse_config_file
        config-file: sample_proj/cibw.toml

-    - name: Check Action artefacts
+    - name: Check Action artifacts
      shell: bash
      run: |
        test $(find wheelhouse -name '*.whl' | wc -l) -ge 1
@@ -167,10 +162,7 @@ jobs:
      run: python -m pip install ".[test,uv]"

    - name: Set up QEMU
-      id: qemu
      uses: docker/setup-qemu-action@v3
-      with:
-        platforms: all

    - name: Run the emulation tests
      run: pytest --run-emulation ${{ matrix.arch }} test/test_emulation.py
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ jobs:

    - name: Create Pull Request
      if: github.ref == 'refs/heads/main' && github.repository == 'pypa/cibuildwheel'
-      uses: peter-evans/create-pull-request@v6
+      uses: peter-evans/create-pull-request@v7
      with:
        commit-message: Update dependencies
        title: '[Bot] Update dependencies'
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ linux:
    PYTEST_ADDOPTS: -k "unit_test or test_0_basic" --suppress-no-test-exit-code
  script:
    - curl -sSL https://get.docker.com/ | sh
+    - docker run --rm --privileged docker.io/tonistiigi/binfmt:latest --install all
    - python -m pip install -e ".[dev]" pytest-custom-exit-code
    - python ./bin/run_tests.py

@@ -14,14 +14,14 @@ repos:
  - id: trailing-whitespace

 - repo: https://github.com/astral-sh/ruff-pre-commit
-  rev: v0.5.0
+  rev: v0.6.5
  hooks:
  - id: ruff
    args: ["--fix", "--show-fixes"]
  - id: ruff-format

 - repo: https://github.com/pre-commit/mirrors-mypy
-  rev: v1.10.1
+  rev: v1.11.2
  hooks:
  - id: mypy
    name: mypy 3.8 on cibuildwheel/
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ repos:


 - repo: https://github.com/python-jsonschema/check-jsonschema
-  rev: 0.28.6
+  rev: 0.29.2
  hooks:
    - id: check-dependabot
    - id: check-github-actions
@@ -20,6 +20,14 @@ jobs:
      group: edge
      virt: vm
      env: PYTHON=python
+      # docker is outdated in the arm64-graviton2 vm focal image (19.x)
+      # we need to upgrade to get >= 24.0
+      addons:
+        apt:
+          sources:
+            - sourceline: 'deb https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu $(lsb_release -cs) stable'
+          packages:
+            - docker-ce docker-ce-cli containerd.io

    - name: Linux | ppc64le | Python 3.9
      python: 3.9
@@ -44,11 +52,13 @@ jobs:
      python: 3.9
      services: docker
      arch: s390x
+      allow_failure: True
      env: PYTHON=python

 install:
+- if [ "${TRAVIS_OS_NAME}" == "linux" ]; then docker run --rm --privileged docker.io/tonistiigi/binfmt:latest --install all; fi
 - $PYTHON -m pip install -U pip
- $PYTHON -m pip install -e ".[dev]" pytest-custom-exit-code
+- $PYTHON -m pip install -e ".[test]" pytest-custom-exit-code

 script: |
  # travis_wait disable the output while waiting
@@ -56,5 +66,7 @@ script: |
  (while true; do echo "travis_keep_alive"; sleep 300; done) &
  SPINNER_PID=$!
  disown
-  $PYTHON ./bin/run_tests.py --num-processes 2
+  result=0
+  $PYTHON ./bin/run_tests.py --num-processes 2 || result=1
  kill -9 ${SPINNER_PID}
+  test ${result} -eq 0
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
 This is a summary of the host Python versions and platforms covered by the different CI platforms:

-|         | 3.8                                          | 3.9       | 3.10      | 3.11    | 3.12                                 |
-|---------|----------------------------------------------|-----------|-----------|---------|--------------------------------------|
-| Linux   | AppVeyor¹ / Azure Pipelines / GitHub Actions | Travis CI | Cirrus CI |         | CircleCI¹ / GitHub Actions / GitLab¹ |
-| macOS   | AppVeyor¹ / Azure Pipelines                  |           | Cirrus CI | GitLab¹ | CircleCI¹ / GitHub Actions           |
-| Windows | AppVeyor¹ / Azure Pipelines                  | Travis CI | Cirrus CI |         | GitHub Actions / GitLab¹             |
+|         | 3.8                              | 3.9       | 3.10      | 3.11    | 3.12                                             |
+|---------|----------------------------------|-----------|-----------|---------|--------------------------------------------------|
+| Linux   | Azure Pipelines / GitHub Actions | Travis CI | Cirrus CI |         | AppVeyor¹ / CircleCI¹ / GitHub Actions / GitLab¹ |
+| macOS   | Azure Pipelines                  |           | Cirrus CI | GitLab¹ | AppVeyor¹ /CircleCI¹ / GitHub Actions            |
+| Windows | Azure Pipelines                  | Travis CI | Cirrus CI |         | AppVeyor¹ / GitHub Actions / GitLab¹             |

 > ¹ Runs a reduced set of tests to reduce CI load

@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ What does it do?

 <sup>¹ PyPy is only supported for manylinux wheels.</sup><br>
 <sup>² Windows arm64 support is experimental.</sup><br>
-<sup>³ CPython 3.13 is available using the [`CIBW_PRERELEASE_PYTHONS`](https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#prerelease-pythons) option. Free-threaded mode requires opt-in.</sup><br>
+<sup>³ CPython 3.13 is built by default using Python RCs, starting with cibuildwheel 2.20. Free-threaded mode will still require opt-in using [`CIBW_FREE_THREADED_SUPPORT`](https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#free-threaded-support).</sup><br>
 <sup>⁴ Experimental, not yet supported on PyPI, but can be used directly in web deployment. Use `--platform pyodide` to build.</sup><br>

 - Builds manylinux, musllinux, macOS 10.9+, and Windows wheels for CPython and PyPy
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ jobs:
      - uses: actions/setup-python@v5

      - name: Install cibuildwheel
-        run: python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+        run: python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1

      - name: Build wheels
        run: python -m cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
@@ -161,8 +161,8 @@ Here are some repos that use cibuildwheel.
 | [scikit-learn][]                  | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | The machine learning library. A complex but clean config using many of cibuildwheel's features to build a large project with Cython and C++ extensions.  |
 | [pytorch-fairseq][]               | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Facebook AI Research Sequence-to-Sequence Toolkit written in Python. |
 | [NumPy][]                         | ![github icon][] ![travisci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | The fundamental package for scientific computing with Python. |
-| [Tornado][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![linux icon][] ![apple icon][] ![windows icon][] | Tornado is a Python web framework and asynchronous networking library. Uses stable ABI for a small C extension. |
 | [duckdb][]                        | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | DuckDB is an analytical in-process SQL database management system |
+| [Tornado][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![linux icon][] ![apple icon][] ![windows icon][] | Tornado is a Python web framework and asynchronous networking library. Uses stable ABI for a small C extension. |
 | [NCNN][]                          | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | ncnn is a high-performance neural network inference framework optimized for the mobile platform |
 | [Matplotlib][]                    | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | The venerable Matplotlib, a Python library with C++ portions |
 | [Prophet][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Tool for producing high quality forecasts for time series data that has multiple seasonality with linear or non-linear growth. |
@@ -172,8 +172,8 @@ Here are some repos that use cibuildwheel.
 [scikit-learn]: https://github.com/scikit-learn/scikit-learn
 [pytorch-fairseq]: https://github.com/facebookresearch/fairseq
 [NumPy]: https://github.com/numpy/numpy
-[Tornado]: https://github.com/tornadoweb/tornado
 [duckdb]: https://github.com/duckdb/duckdb
+[Tornado]: https://github.com/tornadoweb/tornado
 [NCNN]: https://github.com/Tencent/ncnn
 [Matplotlib]: https://github.com/matplotlib/matplotlib
 [Prophet]: https://github.com/facebook/prophet
@@ -211,74 +211,63 @@ Changelog

 <!-- this section was generated by bin/update_readme_changelog.py -- do not edit manually -->

+### v2.21.1
+
+_16 September 2024_
+
+- 🐛 Fix a bug in the Linux build, where files copied to the container would have invalid ownership permissions (#2007)
+- 🐛 Fix a bug on Windows where cibuildwheel would call upon `uv` to install dependencies for versions of CPython that it does not support (#2005)
+- 🐛 Fix a bug where `uv 0.4.10` would not use the right Python when testing on Linux. (#2008)
+- 🛠 Bump our documentation pins, fixes an issue with a missing package (#2011)
+
+### v2.21.0
+
+_13 September 2024_
+
+- ⚠️ Update CPython 3.12 to 3.12.6, which changes the macOS minimum deployment target on CPython 3.12 from macOS 10.9 to macOS 10.13 (#1998)
+- 🛠 Changes the behaviour when inheriting `config-settings` in TOML overrides - rather than extending each key, which is rarely useful, individual keys will override previously set values. (#1803)
+- 🛠 Update CPython 3.13 to 3.13.0rc2 (#1998)
+- ✨ Adds support for multiarch OCI images (#1961)
+- 🐛 Fixes some bugs building Linux wheels on macOS. (#1961)
+- ⚠️ Changes the minimum version of Docker/Podman to Docker API version 1.43, Podman API version 3. The only mainstream runner this should affect is Travis Graviton2 runners - if so you can [upgrade your version of Docker](https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel/pull/1961#issuecomment-2304060019). (#1961)
+
+
+### v2.20.0
+
+_4 August 2024_
+
+- 🌟 CPython 3.13 wheels are now built by default - without the `CIBW_PRERELEASE_PYTHONS` flag. It's time to build and upload these wheels to PyPI! This release includes CPython 3.13.0rc1, which is guaranteed to be ABI compatible with the final release. Free-threading is still behind a flag/config option. (#1950)
+- ✨ Provide a `CIBW_ALLOW_EMPTY` environment variable as an alternative to the command line flag. (#1937)
+- 🐛 Don't use uv on PyPy3.8 on Windows, it stopped working starting in 0.2.25. Note that PyPy 3.8 is EoL. (#1868)
+- 🛠 Set the `VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH` variable based on target arch. (#1876)
+- 🛠 Undo cleaner output on pytest 8-8.2 now that 8.3 is out. (#1943)
+- 📚 Update examples to use Python 3.12 on host  (cibuildwheel will require Python 3.11+ on the host machine starting in October 2024) (#1919)
+
+
 ### v2.19.2

+_2 July 2024_
+
 - 🐛 Update manylinux2014 pins to versions that support past-EoL CentOS 7 mirrors. (#1917)
 - 🐛 Support `--no-isolation` with `build[uv]` build-frontend. (#1889)
 - 🛠 Provide attestations for releases at <https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel/attestations>. (#1916)
 - 🛠 Provide CPython 3.13.0b3. (#1913)
 - 🛠 Remove some workarounds now that pip 21.1 is available. (#1891, #1892)
 - 📚 Remove nosetest from our docs. (#1821)
- 📚 Document the macOS ARM workaround for 3.8 on GHA. (#1971)
+- 📚 Document the macOS ARM workaround for 3.8 on GHA. (#1871)
 - 📚 GitLab CI + macOS is now a supported platform with an example. (#1911)


 ### v2.19.1

+_13 June 2024_
+
 - 🐛 Don't require setup-python on GHA for Pyodide (#1868)
 - 🐛 Specify full python path for uv (fixes issue in 0.2.10 & 0.2.11) (#1881)
 - 🛠 Update for pip 24.1b2 on CPython 3.13. (#1879)
 - 🛠 Fix a warning in our schema generation script. (#1866)
 - 🛠 Cleaner output on pytest 8-8.2. (#1865)

-
-### v2.19.0
-
-See the [release post](https://iscinumpy.dev/post/cibuildwheel-2-19-0/) for more info on new features!
-
- 🌟 Add Pyodide platform. Set with `--platform pyodide` or `CIBW_PLATFORM: pyodide` on Linux with a host Python 3.12 to build WebAssembly wheels. Not accepted on PyPI currently, but usable directly in a website using Pyodide, for live docs, etc. (#1456, #1859)
- 🌟 Add `build[uv]` backend, which will take a pre-existing uv install (or install `cibuildwheel[uv]`) and use `uv` for all environment setup and installs on Python 3.8+. This is significantly faster in most cases. (#1856)
- ✨ Add free-threaded macOS builds and update CPython to 3.13.0b2. (#1854)
- 🐛 Issue copying a wheel to a non-existent output dir fixed. (#1851, #1862)
- 🐛 Better determinism for the test environment seeding. (#1835)
- 🛠 `VIRTUAL_ENV` variable now set. (#1842)
- 🛠 Remove a pip<21.3 workaround. (#1842)
- 🛠 Error handling was refactored to use exceptions. (#1719)
- 🛠 Hardcoded paths in tests avoided. (#1834)
- 🛠 Single Python tests made more generic. (#1835)
- 🛠 Sped up our ci by splitting up emulation tests. (#1839)
-
-
-
-### v2.18.1
-
- 🌟 Add free-threaded Linux and Windows builds for 3.13. New identifiers `cp313t-*`, new option `CIBW_FREE_THREADED_SUPPORT`/`tool.cibuildwheel.free-threaded-support` required to opt-in. [See the docs](https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#free-threaded-support) for more information. (#1831)
- ✨ The `container-engine` is now a build (non-global) option. (#1792)
- 🛠 The build backend for cibuildwheel is now hatchling. (#1297)
- 🛠 Significant improvements and modernization to our noxfile. (#1823)
- 🛠 Use pylint's new GitHub Actions reporter instead of a custom matcher. (#1823)
- 🛠 Unpin virtualenv updates for Python 3.7+ (#1830)
- 🐛 Fix running linux tests from Windows or macOS ARM. (#1788)
- 📚 Fix our documentation build. (#1821)
-
-
-### v2.18.0
-
-_12 May 2024_
-
- ✨ Adds CPython 3.13 support, under the prerelease flag [CIBW_PRERELEASE_PYTHONS](https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#prerelease-pythons). This version of cibuildwheel uses 3.13.0b1. Free-threading mode is not available yet (#1657), waiting on official binaries (planned for beta 2) and pip support.
-
-    _While CPython is in beta, the ABI can change, so your wheels might not be compatible with the final release. For this reason, we don't recommend distributing wheels until RC1, at which point 3.13 will be available in cibuildwheel without the flag._ (#1815)
-
- ✨ Musllinux now defaults to `musllinux_1_2`. You can set the older `musllinux_1_1` via config if needed. (#1817)
- 🛠 No longer pre-seed setuptools/wheel in virtual environments (#1819)
- 🛠 Respect the constraints file when building with pip, matching build (#1818)
- 🛠 Use uv to compile our pinned dependencies, 10x faster and doesn't require special setup (#1778)
- 🐛 Fix an issue with the schema (#1788)
- 📚 Document the new delocate error checking macOS versions (#1766)
- 📚 Document Rust builds (#1816)
- 📚 Speed up our readthedocs builds with uv, 26 seconds -> 6 seconds to install dependencies (#1816)
-
 <!-- END bin/update_readme_changelog.py -->

 ---
@@ -1,26 +1,29 @@
 environment:
  matrix:
-    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: Ubuntu
-      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python38-x64-ubuntu"
-    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: Visual Studio 2015
-      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python38-x64-vs2015"
-    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: macos
-      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python38-x64-macos"
+    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: Ubuntu2204
+      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python312-x64-ubuntu"
+    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: Visual Studio 2022
+      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python312-x64-vs2022"
+    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: macos-sonoma
+      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python312-x64-macos"

-stack: python 3.8
+stack: python 3.12

 build: off

 init:
- cmd: set PATH=C:\Python38;C:\Python38\Scripts;%PATH%
 - ps: |
      $BRANCH = if ($env:APPVEYOR_PULL_REQUEST_HEAD_REPO_BRANCH) { $env:APPVEYOR_PULL_REQUEST_HEAD_REPO_BRANCH } else { $env:APPVEYOR_REPO_BRANCH }
      if (-not ($BRANCH -eq 'main' -or $BRANCH.ToLower().StartsWith('appveyor-'))) {
-        $env:PYTEST_ADDOPTS='-k "unit_test or test_0_basic" --suppress-no-test-exit-code'
+        $env:PYTEST_ADDOPTS = '-k "unit_test or test_0_basic" --suppress-no-test-exit-code'
+      }
+      if ($IsLinux) {
+        docker run --rm --privileged docker.io/tonistiigi/binfmt:latest --install all
      }
-      python -m pip install -U pip

-install: python -m pip install -e ".[dev]" pytest-custom-exit-code
+install:
+  - python -m pip install -U pip
+  - python -m pip install -e ".[dev]" pytest-custom-exit-code

 # the '-u' flag is required so the output is in the correct order.
 # See https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel/pull/24 for more info.
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ jobs:
      inputs:
        versionSpec: '3.8'
    - bash: |
+        docker run --rm --privileged docker.io/tonistiigi/binfmt:latest --install all
        python -m pip install -e ".[dev]"
        python ./bin/run_tests.py

@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
    # unit tests
    unit_test_args = [sys.executable, "-m", "pytest", "unit_test"]

-    if sys.platform.startswith("linux"):
+    if sys.platform.startswith("linux") and os.environ.get("CIBW_PLATFORM", "linux") == "linux":
        # run the docker unit tests only on Linux
        unit_test_args += ["--run-docker"]

@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 from __future__ import annotations

-__version__ = "2.19.2"
+__version__ = "2.21.1"
@@ -240,7 +240,7 @@ def _compute_platform_auto() -> PlatformName:


 def _compute_platform(args: CommandLineArguments) -> PlatformName:
-    platform_option_value = args.platform or os.environ.get("CIBW_PLATFORM", "auto")
+    platform_option_value = args.platform or os.environ.get("CIBW_PLATFORM", "") or "auto"

    if args.only and args.platform is not None:
        msg = "--platform cannot be specified with --only, it is computed from --only"
@@ -319,7 +319,7 @@ def build_in_directory(args: CommandLineArguments) -> None:
    # Python is buffering by default when running on the CI platforms, giving
    # problems interleaving subprocess call output with unflushed calls to
    # 'print'
-    sys.stdout = Unbuffered(sys.stdout)  # type: ignore[assignment]
+    sys.stdout = Unbuffered(sys.stdout)

    # create the cache dir before it gets printed & builds performed
    CIBW_CACHE_PATH.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
@@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ def build_in_directory(args: CommandLineArguments) -> None:

    if not identifiers:
        message = f"No build identifiers selected: {options.globals.build_selector}"
-        if args.allow_empty:
+        if options.globals.allow_empty:
            print(f"cibuildwheel: {message}", file=sys.stderr)
        else:
            raise errors.NothingToDoError(message)
@@ -64,7 +64,9 @@ class Architecture(Enum):
            if arch_str == "auto":
                result |= Architecture.auto_archs(platform=platform)
            elif arch_str == "native":
-                result.add(Architecture(platform_module.machine()))
+                native_arch = Architecture.native_arch(platform=platform)
+                if native_arch:
+                    result.add(native_arch)
            elif arch_str == "all":
                result |= Architecture.all_archs(platform=platform)
            elif arch_str == "auto64":
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@ a different return code, by defining them all here, we can ensure that they're
 semantically clear and unique.
 """

+import textwrap
+

 class FatalError(BaseException):
    """
@@ -25,3 +27,38 @@ class NothingToDoError(FatalError):

 class DeprecationError(FatalError):
    return_code = 4
+
+
+class NonPlatformWheelError(FatalError):
+    def __init__(self) -> None:
+        message = textwrap.dedent(
+            """
+            Build failed because a pure Python wheel was generated.
+
+            If you intend to build a pure-Python wheel, you don't need cibuildwheel - use
+            `pip wheel -w DEST_DIR .` instead.
+
+            If you expected a platform wheel, check your project configuration, or run
+            cibuildwheel with CIBW_BUILD_VERBOSITY=1 to view build logs.
+            """
+        )
+        super().__init__(message)
+        self.return_code = 5
+
+
+class AlreadyBuiltWheelError(FatalError):
+    def __init__(self, wheel_name: str) -> None:
+        message = textwrap.dedent(
+            f"""
+            Build failed because a wheel named {wheel_name} was already generated in the current run.
+
+            If you expected another wheel to be generated, check your project configuration, or run
+            cibuildwheel with CIBW_BUILD_VERBOSITY=1 to view build logs.
+            """
+        )
+        super().__init__(message)
+        self.return_code = 6
+
+
+class OCIEngineTooOldError(FatalError):
+    return_code = 7
@@ -14,14 +14,12 @@ from . import errors
 from ._compat.typing import assert_never
 from .architecture import Architecture
 from .logger import log
-from .oci_container import OCIContainer, OCIContainerEngineConfig
+from .oci_container import OCIContainer, OCIContainerEngineConfig, OCIPlatform
 from .options import BuildOptions, Options
 from .typing import PathOrStr
 from .util import (
-    AlreadyBuiltWheelError,
    BuildFrontendConfig,
    BuildSelector,
-    NonPlatformWheelError,
    find_compatible_wheel,
    get_build_verbosity_extra_flags,
    prepare_command,
@@ -31,6 +29,14 @@ from .util import (
    unwrap,
 )

+ARCHITECTURE_OCI_PLATFORM_MAP = {
+    Architecture.x86_64: OCIPlatform.AMD64,
+    Architecture.i686: OCIPlatform.i386,
+    Architecture.aarch64: OCIPlatform.ARM64,
+    Architecture.ppc64le: OCIPlatform.PPC64LE,
+    Architecture.s390x: OCIPlatform.S390X,
+}
+

@dataclass(frozen=True)
 class PythonConfiguration:
@@ -198,6 +204,8 @@ def build_in_container(

        dependency_constraint_flags: list[PathOrStr] = []

+        log.step("Setting up build environment...")
+
        if build_options.dependency_constraints:
            constraints_file = build_options.dependency_constraints.get_for_python_version(
                config.version
@@ -207,8 +215,6 @@ def build_in_container(
            container.copy_into(constraints_file, container_constraints_file)
            dependency_constraint_flags = ["-c", container_constraints_file]

-        log.step("Setting up build environment...")
-
        env = container.get_environment()
        env["PIP_DISABLE_PIP_VERSION_CHECK"] = "1"
        env["PIP_ROOT_USER_ACTION"] = "ignore"
@@ -306,7 +312,7 @@ def build_in_container(
            container.call(["mkdir", "-p", repaired_wheel_dir])

            if built_wheel.name.endswith("none-any.whl"):
-                raise NonPlatformWheelError()
+                raise errors.NonPlatformWheelError()

            if build_options.repair_command:
                log.step("Repairing wheel...")
@@ -321,7 +327,7 @@ def build_in_container(

            for repaired_wheel in repaired_wheels:
                if repaired_wheel.name in {wheel.name for wheel in built_wheels}:
-                    raise AlreadyBuiltWheelError(repaired_wheel.name)
+                    raise errors.AlreadyBuiltWheelError(repaired_wheel.name)

        if build_options.test_command and build_options.test_selector(config.identifier):
            log.step("Testing wheel...")
@@ -339,7 +345,7 @@ def build_in_container(
            venv_dir = testing_temp_dir / "venv"

            if use_uv:
-                container.call(["uv", "venv", venv_dir], env=env)
+                container.call(["uv", "venv", venv_dir, "--python", python_bin / "python"], env=env)
            else:
                # Use embedded dependencies from virtualenv to ensure determinism
                venv_args = ["--no-periodic-update", "--pip=embed"]
@@ -448,10 +454,11 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:  # noqa: ARG001
            log.step(f"Starting container image {build_step.container_image}...")

            print(f"info: This container will host the build for {', '.join(ids_to_build)}...")
+            architecture = Architecture(build_step.platform_tag.split("_", 1)[1])

            with OCIContainer(
                image=build_step.container_image,
-                enforce_32_bit=build_step.platform_tag.endswith("i686"),
+                oci_platform=ARCHITECTURE_OCI_PLATFORM_MAP[architecture],
                cwd=container_project_path,
                engine=build_step.container_engine,
            ) as container:
@@ -25,11 +25,9 @@ from .options import Options
 from .typing import PathOrStr
 from .util import (
    CIBW_CACHE_PATH,
-    AlreadyBuiltWheelError,
    BuildFrontendConfig,
    BuildFrontendName,
    BuildSelector,
-    NonPlatformWheelError,
    call,
    combine_constraints,
    detect_ci_provider,
@@ -195,6 +193,11 @@ def install_pypy(tmp: Path, url: str) -> Path:
    return installation_path / "bin" / "pypy3"


+def can_use_uv(python_configuration: PythonConfiguration) -> bool:
+    conditions = (Version(python_configuration.version) >= Version("3.8"),)
+    return all(conditions)
+
+
 def setup_python(
    tmp: Path,
    python_configuration: PythonConfiguration,
@@ -202,13 +205,11 @@ def setup_python(
    environment: ParsedEnvironment,
    build_frontend: BuildFrontendName,
 ) -> tuple[Path, dict[str, str]]:
-    if build_frontend == "build[uv]" and Version(python_configuration.version) < Version("3.8"):
+    if build_frontend == "build[uv]" and not can_use_uv(python_configuration):
        build_frontend = "build"

    uv_path = find_uv()
-    use_uv = build_frontend == "build[uv]" and Version(python_configuration.version) >= Version(
-        "3.8"
-    )
+    use_uv = build_frontend == "build[uv]"

    tmp.mkdir()
    implementation_id = python_configuration.identifier.split("-")[0]
@@ -296,10 +297,10 @@ def setup_python(
    # Set MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET, if the user didn't set it.
    # For arm64, the minimal deployment target is 11.0.
    # On x86_64 (or universal2), use 10.9 as a default.
-    # CPython 3.13 needs 10.13.
+    # CPython 3.12.6+ needs 10.13.
    if config_is_arm64:
        default_target = "11.0"
-    elif Version(python_configuration.version) >= Version("3.13"):
+    elif Version(python_configuration.version) >= Version("3.12"):
        default_target = "10.13"
    elif python_configuration.identifier.startswith("pp") and Version(
        python_configuration.version
@@ -417,9 +418,7 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:
        for config in python_configurations:
            build_options = options.build_options(config.identifier)
            build_frontend = build_options.build_frontend or BuildFrontendConfig("pip")
-            use_uv = build_frontend.name == "build[uv]" and Version(config.version) >= Version(
-                "3.8"
-            )
+            use_uv = build_frontend.name == "build[uv]" and can_use_uv(config)
            uv_path = find_uv()
            if use_uv and uv_path is None:
                msg = "uv not found"
@@ -525,7 +524,7 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:
                repaired_wheel_dir.mkdir()

                if built_wheel.name.endswith("none-any.whl"):
-                    raise NonPlatformWheelError()
+                    raise errors.NonPlatformWheelError()

                if build_options.repair_command:
                    log.step("Repairing wheel...")
@@ -550,7 +549,7 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:
                repaired_wheel = next(repaired_wheel_dir.glob("*.whl"))

                if repaired_wheel.name in {wheel.name for wheel in built_wheels}:
-                    raise AlreadyBuiltWheelError(repaired_wheel.name)
+                    raise errors.AlreadyBuiltWheelError(repaired_wheel.name)

                log.step_end()

@@ -12,11 +12,16 @@ import typing
 import uuid
 from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence
 from dataclasses import dataclass, field
+from enum import Enum
 from pathlib import Path, PurePath, PurePosixPath
 from types import TracebackType
 from typing import IO, Dict, Literal

-from ._compat.typing import Self
+from packaging.version import InvalidVersion, Version
+
+from ._compat.typing import Self, assert_never
+from .errors import OCIEngineTooOldError
+from .logger import log
 from .typing import PathOrStr, PopenBytes
 from .util import (
    CIProvider,
@@ -29,6 +34,15 @@ from .util import (
 ContainerEngineName = Literal["docker", "podman"]


+# Order of the enum matters for tests. 386 shall appear before amd64.
+class OCIPlatform(Enum):
+    i386 = "linux/386"
+    AMD64 = "linux/amd64"
+    ARM64 = "linux/arm64"
+    PPC64LE = "linux/ppc64le"
+    S390X = "linux/s390x"
+
+
@dataclass(frozen=True)
 class OCIContainerEngineConfig:
    name: ContainerEngineName
@@ -56,6 +70,15 @@ class OCIContainerEngineConfig:
        disable_host_mount = (
            strtobool(disable_host_mount_options[-1]) if disable_host_mount_options else False
        )
+        if "--platform" in create_args or any(arg.startswith("--platform=") for arg in create_args):
+            msg = "Using '--platform' in 'container-engine::create_args' is deprecated. It will be ignored."
+            log.warning(msg)
+            if "--platform" in create_args:
+                index = create_args.index("--platform")
+                create_args.pop(index)
+                create_args.pop(index)
+            else:
+                create_args = [arg for arg in create_args if not arg.startswith("--platform=")]

        return OCIContainerEngineConfig(
            name=name, create_args=tuple(create_args), disable_host_mount=disable_host_mount
@@ -75,6 +98,32 @@ class OCIContainerEngineConfig:
 DEFAULT_ENGINE = OCIContainerEngineConfig("docker")


+def _check_engine_version(engine: OCIContainerEngineConfig) -> None:
+    try:
+        version_string = call(engine.name, "version", "-f", "{{json .}}", capture_stdout=True)
+        version_info = json.loads(version_string.strip())
+        if engine.name == "docker":
+            # --platform support was introduced in 1.32 as experimental
+            # docker cp, as used by cibuildwheel, has been fixed in v24 => API 1.43, https://github.com/moby/moby/issues/38995
+            client_api_version = Version(version_info["Client"]["ApiVersion"])
+            engine_api_version = Version(version_info["Server"]["ApiVersion"])
+            version_supported = min(client_api_version, engine_api_version) >= Version("1.43")
+        elif engine.name == "podman":
+            client_api_version = Version(version_info["Client"]["APIVersion"])
+            if "Server" in version_info:
+                engine_api_version = Version(version_info["Server"]["APIVersion"])
+            else:
+                engine_api_version = client_api_version
+            # --platform support was introduced in v3
+            version_supported = min(client_api_version, engine_api_version) >= Version("3")
+        else:
+            assert_never(engine.name)
+        if not version_supported:
+            raise OCIEngineTooOldError() from None
+    except (subprocess.CalledProcessError, KeyError, InvalidVersion) as e:
+        raise OCIEngineTooOldError() from e
+
+
 class OCIContainer:
    """
    An object that represents a running OCI (e.g. Docker) container.
@@ -108,7 +157,7 @@ class OCIContainer:
        self,
        *,
        image: str,
-        enforce_32_bit: bool = False,
+        oci_platform: OCIPlatform,
        cwd: PathOrStr | None = None,
        engine: OCIContainerEngineConfig = DEFAULT_ENGINE,
    ):
@@ -117,14 +166,44 @@ class OCIContainer:
            raise ValueError(msg)

        self.image = image
-        self.enforce_32_bit = enforce_32_bit
+        self.oci_platform = oci_platform
        self.cwd = cwd
        self.name: str | None = None
        self.engine = engine
+        self.host_tar_format = ""
+        if sys.platform.startswith("darwin"):
+            self.host_tar_format = "--format gnutar"
+
+    def _get_platform_args(self, *, oci_platform: OCIPlatform | None = None) -> tuple[str, str]:
+        if oci_platform is None:
+            oci_platform = self.oci_platform
+
+        # we need '--pull=always' otherwise some images with the wrong platform get re-used (e.g. 386 image for amd64)
+        # c.f. https://github.com/moby/moby/issues/48197#issuecomment-2282802313
+        pull = "always"
+        try:
+            image_platform = call(
+                self.engine.name,
+                "image",
+                "inspect",
+                self.image,
+                "--format",
+                "{{.Os}}/{{.Architecture}}",
+                capture_stdout=True,
+            ).strip()
+            if image_platform == oci_platform.value:
+                # in case the correct image is already present, don't pull
+                # this allows to run local only images
+                pull = "never"
+        except subprocess.CalledProcessError:
+            pass
+        return f"--platform={oci_platform.value}", f"--pull={pull}"

    def __enter__(self) -> Self:
        self.name = f"cibuildwheel-{uuid.uuid4()}"

+        _check_engine_version(self.engine)
+
        # work-around for Travis-CI PPC64le Docker runs since 2021:
        # this avoids network splits
        # https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel/issues/904
@@ -133,14 +212,26 @@ class OCIContainer:
        if detect_ci_provider() == CIProvider.travis_ci and platform.machine() == "ppc64le":
            network_args = ["--network=host"]

+        platform_args = self._get_platform_args()
+
        simulate_32_bit = False
-        if self.enforce_32_bit:
+        if self.oci_platform == OCIPlatform.i386:
            # If the architecture running the image is already the right one
            # or the image entrypoint takes care of enforcing this, then we don't need to
            # simulate this
-            container_machine = call(
-                self.engine.name, "run", "--rm", self.image, "uname", "-m", capture_stdout=True
-            ).strip()
+            run_cmd = [self.engine.name, "run", "--rm"]
+            ctr_cmd = ["uname", "-m"]
+            try:
+                container_machine = call(
+                    *run_cmd, *platform_args, self.image, *ctr_cmd, capture_stdout=True
+                ).strip()
+            except subprocess.CalledProcessError:
+                # The image might have been built with amd64 architecture
+                # Let's try that
+                platform_args = self._get_platform_args(oci_platform=OCIPlatform.AMD64)
+                container_machine = call(
+                    *run_cmd, *platform_args, self.image, *ctr_cmd, capture_stdout=True
+                ).strip()
            simulate_32_bit = container_machine != "i686"

        shell_args = ["linux32", "/bin/bash"] if simulate_32_bit else ["/bin/bash"]
@@ -155,6 +246,7 @@ class OCIContainer:
                "--interactive",
                *(["--volume=/:/host"] if not self.engine.disable_host_mount else []),
                *network_args,
+                *platform_args,
                *self.engine.create_args,
                self.image,
                *shell_args,
@@ -221,15 +313,10 @@ class OCIContainer:
            self.name = None

    def copy_into(self, from_path: Path, to_path: PurePath) -> None:
-        # `docker cp` causes 'no space left on device' error when
-        # a container is running and the host filesystem is
-        # mounted. https://github.com/moby/moby/issues/38995
-        # Use `docker exec` instead.
-
        if from_path.is_dir():
            self.call(["mkdir", "-p", to_path])
            subprocess.run(
-                f"tar cf - . | {self.engine.name} exec -i {self.name} tar --no-same-owner -xC {shell_quote(to_path)} -f -",
+                f"tar -c {self.host_tar_format} -f - . | {self.engine.name} exec -i {self.name} tar --no-same-owner -xC {shell_quote(to_path)} -f -",
                shell=True,
                check=True,
                cwd=from_path,
@@ -264,30 +351,7 @@ class OCIContainer:
    def copy_out(self, from_path: PurePath, to_path: Path) -> None:
        # note: we assume from_path is a dir
        to_path.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
-
-        if self.engine.name == "podman":
-            subprocess.run(
-                [
-                    self.engine.name,
-                    "cp",
-                    f"{self.name}:{from_path}/.",
-                    str(to_path),
-                ],
-                check=True,
-                cwd=to_path,
-            )
-        elif self.engine.name == "docker":
-            # There is a bug in docker that prevents a simple 'cp' invocation
-            # from working https://github.com/moby/moby/issues/38995
-            command = f"{self.engine.name} exec -i {self.name} tar -cC {shell_quote(from_path)} -f - . | tar -xf -"
-            subprocess.run(
-                command,
-                shell=True,
-                check=True,
-                cwd=to_path,
-            )
-        else:
-            raise KeyError(self.engine.name)
+        call(self.engine.name, "cp", f"{self.name}:{from_path}/.", to_path)

    def glob(self, path: PurePosixPath, pattern: str) -> list[PurePosixPath]:
        glob_pattern = path.joinpath(pattern)
@@ -9,15 +9,15 @@ import enum
 import functools
 import shlex
 import textwrap
-from collections.abc import Callable, Generator, Iterable, Iterator, Set
+from collections.abc import Generator, Iterable, Set
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Any, Literal, Mapping, Sequence, TypedDict, Union  # noqa: TID251
+from typing import Any, Literal, Mapping, Sequence, Union  # noqa: TID251

 from packaging.specifiers import SpecifierSet

 from . import errors
 from ._compat import tomllib
-from ._compat.typing import NotRequired, assert_never
+from ._compat.typing import assert_never
 from .architecture import Architecture
 from .environment import EnvironmentParseError, ParsedEnvironment, parse_environment
 from .logger import log
@@ -75,6 +75,7 @@ class GlobalOptions:
    build_selector: BuildSelector
    test_selector: TestSelector
    architectures: set[Architecture]
+    allow_empty: bool


@dataclasses.dataclass(frozen=True)
@@ -117,13 +118,16 @@ class BuildOptions:
        return self.globals.architectures


-Setting = Union[Mapping[str, str], Sequence[str], str, int, bool]
+SettingLeaf = Union[str, int, bool]
+SettingList = Sequence[SettingLeaf]
+SettingTable = Mapping[str, Union[SettingLeaf, SettingList]]
+SettingValue = Union[SettingTable, SettingList, SettingLeaf]


@dataclasses.dataclass(frozen=True)
 class Override:
    select_pattern: str
-    options: dict[str, Setting]
+    options: dict[str, SettingValue]
    inherit: dict[str, InheritRule]


@@ -136,22 +140,123 @@ DISALLOWED_OPTIONS = {
 }


-class TableFmt(TypedDict):
-    # a format string, used with '.format', with `k` and `v` parameters
-    # e.g. "{k}={v}"
-    item: str
-    # the string that is inserted between items
-    # e.g. " "
-    sep: str
-    # a quoting function that, if supplied, is called to quote each value
-    # e.g. shlex.quote
-    quote: NotRequired[Callable[[str], str]]
-
-
-class ConfigOptionError(KeyError):
+class OptionsReaderError(errors.ConfigurationError):
    pass


+class OptionFormat:
+    """
+    Base class for option format specifiers. These objects describe how values
+    can be parsed from rich TOML values and how they're merged together.
+    """
+
+    class NotSupported(Exception):
+        pass
+
+    def format_list(self, value: SettingList) -> str:  # noqa: ARG002
+        raise OptionFormat.NotSupported
+
+    def format_table(self, table: SettingTable) -> str:  # noqa: ARG002
+        raise OptionFormat.NotSupported
+
+    def merge_values(self, before: str, after: str) -> str:  # noqa: ARG002
+        raise OptionFormat.NotSupported
+
+
+class ListFormat(OptionFormat):
+    """
+    A format that joins lists with a separator.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, sep: str) -> None:
+        self.sep = sep
+
+    def format_list(self, value: SettingList) -> str:
+        return self.sep.join(str(v) for v in value)
+
+    def merge_values(self, before: str, after: str) -> str:
+        return f"{before}{self.sep}{after}"
+
+
+class ShlexTableFormat(OptionFormat):
+    """
+    The standard table format uses shlex.quote to quote values and shlex.split
+    to unquote and split them. When merging values, keys in before are
+    replaced by keys in after.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, sep: str = " ", pair_sep: str = "=", allow_merge: bool = True) -> None:
+        self.sep = sep
+        self.pair_sep = pair_sep
+        self.allow_merge = allow_merge
+
+    def format_table(self, table: SettingTable) -> str:
+        assignments: list[tuple[str, str]] = []
+
+        for k, v in table.items():
+            if shlex.split(k) != [k]:
+                msg = f"Invalid table key: {k}"
+                raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
+
+            if isinstance(v, str):
+                assignments.append((k, v))
+            elif isinstance(v, Sequence):
+                for inner_v in v:
+                    assignments.append((k, str(inner_v)))
+            else:
+                assignments.append((k, str(v)))
+
+        return self.sep.join(f"{k}{self.pair_sep}{shlex.quote(v)}" for k, v in assignments)
+
+    def merge_values(self, before: str, after: str) -> str:
+        if not self.allow_merge:
+            raise OptionFormat.NotSupported
+
+        before_dict = self.parse_table(before)
+        after_dict = self.parse_table(after)
+
+        return self.format_table({**before_dict, **after_dict})
+
+    def parse_table(self, table: str) -> Mapping[str, str | Sequence[str]]:
+        assignments: list[tuple[str, str]] = []
+
+        for assignment_str in shlex.split(table):
+            key, sep, value = assignment_str.partition(self.pair_sep)
+
+            if not sep:
+                msg = f"malformed option with value {assignment_str!r}"
+                raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
+
+            assignments.append((key, value))
+
+        result: dict[str, str | list[str]] = {}
+
+        for key, value in assignments:
+            if key in result:
+                existing_value = result[key]
+                if isinstance(existing_value, list):
+                    result[key] = [*existing_value, value]
+                else:
+                    result[key] = [existing_value, value]
+            else:
+                result[key] = value
+
+        return result
+
+
+class EnvironmentFormat(OptionFormat):
+    """
+    The environment format accepts a table of environment variables, where the
+    values may contain variables or command substitutions.
+    """
+
+    def format_table(self, table: SettingTable) -> str:
+        return " ".join(f'{k}="{v}"' for k, v in table.items())
+
+    def merge_values(self, before: str, after: str) -> str:
+        return f"{before} {after}"
+
+
 class InheritRule(enum.Enum):
    NONE = enum.auto()
    APPEND = enum.auto()
@@ -159,10 +264,9 @@ class InheritRule(enum.Enum):


 def _resolve_cascade(
-    *pairs: tuple[Setting | None, InheritRule],
+    *pairs: tuple[SettingValue | None, InheritRule],
    ignore_empty: bool = False,
-    list_sep: str | None = None,
-    table_format: TableFmt | None = None,
+    option_format: OptionFormat | None = None,
 ) -> str:
    """
    Given a cascade of values with inherit rules, resolve them into a single
@@ -185,13 +289,6 @@ def _resolve_cascade(

    result: str | None = None

-    if table_format is not None:
-        merge_sep = table_format["sep"]
-    elif list_sep is not None:
-        merge_sep = list_sep
-    else:
-        merge_sep = None
-
    for value, rule in pairs:
        if value is None:
            continue
@@ -199,14 +296,9 @@ def _resolve_cascade(
        if ignore_empty and not value and value is not False:
            continue

-        value_string = _stringify_setting(value, list_sep, table_format)
+        value_string = _stringify_setting(value, option_format=option_format)

-        result = _merge_values(
-            result,
-            value_string,
-            rule=rule,
-            merge_sep=merge_sep,
-        )
+        result = _apply_inherit_rule(result, value_string, rule=rule, option_format=option_format)

    if result is None:
        msg = "a setting should at least have a default value"
@@ -216,7 +308,9 @@ def _resolve_cascade(


 # pylint: disable-next=inconsistent-return-statements
-def _merge_values(before: str | None, after: str, rule: InheritRule, merge_sep: str | None) -> str:
+def _apply_inherit_rule(
+    before: str | None, after: str, rule: InheritRule, option_format: OptionFormat | None
+) -> str:
    if rule == InheritRule.NONE:
        return after

@@ -229,34 +323,39 @@ def _merge_values(before: str | None, after: str, rule: InheritRule, merge_sep:
        # if after is an empty string, we shouldn't add any separator
        return before

-    if not merge_sep:
+    if not option_format:
        msg = f"Don't know how to merge {before!r} and {after!r} with {rule}"
-        raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
+        raise OptionsReaderError(msg)

    if rule == InheritRule.APPEND:
-        return f"{before}{merge_sep}{after}"
+        return option_format.merge_values(before, after)
    elif rule == InheritRule.PREPEND:
-        return f"{after}{merge_sep}{before}"
+        return option_format.merge_values(after, before)
    else:
        assert_never(rule)


 def _stringify_setting(
-    setting: Setting, list_sep: str | None, table_format: TableFmt | None
+    setting: SettingValue,
+    option_format: OptionFormat | None,
 ) -> str:
    if isinstance(setting, Mapping):
-        if table_format is None:
+        try:
+            if option_format is None:
+                raise OptionFormat.NotSupported
+            return option_format.format_table(setting)
+        except OptionFormat.NotSupported:
            msg = f"Error converting {setting!r} to a string: this setting doesn't accept a table"
-            raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
-        return table_format["sep"].join(
-            item for k, v in setting.items() for item in _inner_fmt(k, v, table_format)
-        )
+            raise OptionsReaderError(msg) from None

    if not isinstance(setting, str) and isinstance(setting, Sequence):
-        if list_sep is None:
+        try:
+            if option_format is None:
+                raise OptionFormat.NotSupported
+            return option_format.format_list(setting)
+        except OptionFormat.NotSupported:
            msg = f"Error converting {setting!r} to a string: this setting doesn't accept a list"
-            raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
-        return list_sep.join(setting)
+            raise OptionsReaderError(msg) from None

    if isinstance(setting, (bool, int)):
        return str(setting)
@@ -322,14 +421,14 @@ class OptionsReader:
        if config_overrides is not None:
            if not isinstance(config_overrides, list):
                msg = "'tool.cibuildwheel.overrides' must be a list"
-                raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
+                raise OptionsReaderError(msg)

            for config_override in config_overrides:
                select = config_override.pop("select", None)

                if not select:
                    msg = "'select' must be set in an override"
-                    raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
+                    raise OptionsReaderError(msg)

                if isinstance(select, list):
                    select = " ".join(select)
@@ -339,7 +438,7 @@ class OptionsReader:
                    i in {"none", "append", "prepend"} for i in inherit.values()
                ):
                    msg = "'inherit' must be a dict containing only {'none', 'append', 'prepend'} values"
-                    raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
+                    raise OptionsReaderError(msg)

                inherit_enum = {k: InheritRule[v.upper()] for k, v in inherit.items()}

@@ -357,7 +456,7 @@ class OptionsReader:
            matches = difflib.get_close_matches(name, allowed_option_names, 1, 0.7)
            if matches:
                msg += f" Perhaps you meant {matches[0]!r}?"
-            raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
+            raise OptionsReaderError(msg)

    def _validate_platform_option(self, name: str) -> None:
        """
@@ -367,7 +466,7 @@ class OptionsReader:
        disallowed_platform_options = self.disallow.get(self.platform, set())
        if name in disallowed_platform_options:
            msg = f"{name!r} is not allowed in {disallowed_platform_options}"
-            raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
+            raise OptionsReaderError(msg)

        allowed_option_names = self.default_options.keys() | self.default_platform_options.keys()

@@ -376,7 +475,7 @@ class OptionsReader:
            matches = difflib.get_close_matches(name, allowed_option_names, 1, 0.7)
            if matches:
                msg += f" Perhaps you meant {matches[0]!r}?"
-            raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
+            raise OptionsReaderError(msg)

    def _load_file(self, filename: Path) -> tuple[dict[str, Any], dict[str, Any]]:
        """
@@ -411,8 +510,7 @@ class OptionsReader:
        name: str,
        *,
        env_plat: bool = True,
-        list_sep: str | None = None,
-        table_format: TableFmt | None = None,
+        option_format: OptionFormat | None = None,
        ignore_empty: bool = False,
    ) -> str:
        """
@@ -428,7 +526,7 @@ class OptionsReader:

        if name not in self.default_options and name not in self.default_platform_options:
            msg = f"{name!r} must be in cibuildwheel/resources/defaults.toml file to be accessed."
-            raise ConfigOptionError(msg)
+            raise OptionsReaderError(msg)

        # Environment variable form
        envvar = f"CIBW_{name.upper().replace('-', '_')}"
@@ -448,26 +546,10 @@ class OptionsReader:
            (self.env.get(envvar), InheritRule.NONE),
            (self.env.get(plat_envvar) if env_plat else None, InheritRule.NONE),
            ignore_empty=ignore_empty,
-            list_sep=list_sep,
-            table_format=table_format,
+            option_format=option_format,
        )


-def _inner_fmt(k: str, v: Any, table: TableFmt) -> Iterator[str]:
-    quote_function = table.get("quote", lambda a: a)
-
-    if isinstance(v, list):
-        for inner_v in v:
-            qv = quote_function(inner_v)
-            yield table["item"].format(k=k, v=qv)
-    elif isinstance(v, bool):
-        qv = quote_function(str(v))
-        yield table["item"].format(k=k, v=qv)
-    else:
-        qv = quote_function(v)
-        yield table["item"].format(k=k, v=qv)
-
-
 class Options:
    def __init__(
        self,
@@ -512,14 +594,18 @@ class Options:
        package_dir = args.package_dir
        output_dir = args.output_dir

-        build_config = self.reader.get("build", env_plat=False, list_sep=" ") or "*"
-        skip_config = self.reader.get("skip", env_plat=False, list_sep=" ")
-        test_skip = self.reader.get("test-skip", env_plat=False, list_sep=" ")
+        build_config = (
+            self.reader.get("build", env_plat=False, option_format=ListFormat(sep=" ")) or "*"
+        )
+        skip_config = self.reader.get("skip", env_plat=False, option_format=ListFormat(sep=" "))
+        test_skip = self.reader.get("test-skip", env_plat=False, option_format=ListFormat(sep=" "))

        free_threaded_support = strtobool(
            self.reader.get("free-threaded-support", env_plat=False, ignore_empty=True)
        )

+        allow_empty = args.allow_empty or strtobool(self.env.get("CIBW_ALLOW_EMPTY", "0"))
+
        prerelease_pythons = args.prerelease_pythons or strtobool(
            self.env.get("CIBW_PRERELEASE_PYTHONS", "0")
        )
@@ -531,7 +617,7 @@ class Options:
        )
        requires_python = None if requires_python_str is None else SpecifierSet(requires_python_str)

-        archs_config_str = args.archs or self.reader.get("archs", list_sep=" ")
+        archs_config_str = args.archs or self.reader.get("archs", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" "))
        architectures = Architecture.parse_config(archs_config_str, platform=self.platform)

        # Process `--only`
@@ -557,6 +643,7 @@ class Options:
            build_selector=build_selector,
            test_selector=test_selector,
            architectures=architectures,
+            allow_empty=allow_empty,
        )

    def build_options(self, identifier: str | None) -> BuildOptions:
@@ -565,30 +652,33 @@ class Options:
        """

        with self.reader.identifier(identifier):
-            before_all = self.reader.get("before-all", list_sep=" && ")
+            before_all = self.reader.get("before-all", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" && "))

-            environment_config = self.reader.get(
-                "environment", table_format={"item": '{k}="{v}"', "sep": " "}
+            environment_config = self.reader.get("environment", option_format=EnvironmentFormat())
+            environment_pass = self.reader.get(
+                "environment-pass", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" ")
+            ).split()
+            before_build = self.reader.get("before-build", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" && "))
+            repair_command = self.reader.get(
+                "repair-wheel-command", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" && ")
            )
-            environment_pass = self.reader.get("environment-pass", list_sep=" ").split()
-            before_build = self.reader.get("before-build", list_sep=" && ")
-            repair_command = self.reader.get("repair-wheel-command", list_sep=" && ")
            config_settings = self.reader.get(
-                "config-settings",
-                table_format={"item": "{k}={v}", "sep": " ", "quote": shlex.quote},
+                "config-settings", option_format=ShlexTableFormat(sep=" ", pair_sep="=")
            )

            dependency_versions = self.reader.get("dependency-versions")
-            test_command = self.reader.get("test-command", list_sep=" && ")
-            before_test = self.reader.get("before-test", list_sep=" && ")
-            test_requires = self.reader.get("test-requires", list_sep=" ").split()
-            test_extras = self.reader.get("test-extras", list_sep=",")
+            test_command = self.reader.get("test-command", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" && "))
+            before_test = self.reader.get("before-test", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" && "))
+            test_requires = self.reader.get(
+                "test-requires", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" ")
+            ).split()
+            test_extras = self.reader.get("test-extras", option_format=ListFormat(sep=","))
            build_verbosity_str = self.reader.get("build-verbosity")

            build_frontend_str = self.reader.get(
                "build-frontend",
                env_plat=False,
-                table_format={"item": "{k}:{v}", "sep": "; ", "quote": shlex.quote},
+                option_format=ShlexTableFormat(sep="; ", pair_sep=":", allow_merge=False),
            )
            build_frontend: BuildFrontendConfig | None
            if not build_frontend_str or build_frontend_str == "default":
@@ -670,7 +760,7 @@ class Options:

            container_engine_str = self.reader.get(
                "container-engine",
-                table_format={"item": "{k}:{v}", "sep": "; ", "quote": shlex.quote},
+                option_format=ShlexTableFormat(sep="; ", pair_sep=":", allow_merge=False),
            )

            try:
@@ -17,10 +17,8 @@ from .options import Options
 from .typing import PathOrStr
 from .util import (
    CIBW_CACHE_PATH,
-    AlreadyBuiltWheelError,
    BuildFrontendConfig,
    BuildSelector,
-    NonPlatformWheelError,
    call,
    combine_constraints,
    download,
@@ -299,7 +297,7 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:
                built_wheel = next(built_wheel_dir.glob("*.whl"))

                if built_wheel.name.endswith("none-any.whl"):
-                    raise NonPlatformWheelError()
+                    raise errors.NonPlatformWheelError()

                if build_options.repair_command:
                    log.step("Repairing wheel...")
@@ -316,7 +314,7 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:
                repaired_wheel = next(repaired_wheel_dir.glob("*.whl"))

                if repaired_wheel.name in {wheel.name for wheel in built_wheels}:
-                    raise AlreadyBuiltWheelError(repaired_wheel.name)
+                    raise errors.AlreadyBuiltWheelError(repaired_wheel.name)

            if build_options.test_command and build_options.test_selector(config.identifier):
                log.step("Testing wheel...")
@@ -120,22 +120,22 @@ python_configurations = [
  { identifier = "cp311-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.11", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.11.9/python-3.11.9-macos11.pkg" },
  { identifier = "cp311-macosx_arm64", version = "3.11", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.11.9/python-3.11.9-macos11.pkg" },
  { identifier = "cp311-macosx_universal2", version = "3.11", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.11.9/python-3.11.9-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp312-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.12", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.12.4/python-3.12.4-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp312-macosx_arm64", version = "3.12", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.12.4/python-3.12.4-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp312-macosx_universal2", version = "3.12", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.12.4/python-3.12.4-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp313-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0b3-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp313-macosx_arm64", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0b3-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp313-macosx_universal2", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0b3-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp313t-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0b3-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp313t-macosx_arm64", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0b3-macos11.pkg" },
-  { identifier = "cp313t-macosx_universal2", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0b3-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp312-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.12", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.12.6/python-3.12.6-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp312-macosx_arm64", version = "3.12", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.12.6/python-3.12.6-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp312-macosx_universal2", version = "3.12", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.12.6/python-3.12.6-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp313-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0rc2-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp313-macosx_arm64", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0rc2-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp313-macosx_universal2", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0rc2-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp313t-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0rc2-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp313t-macosx_arm64", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0rc2-macos11.pkg" },
+  { identifier = "cp313t-macosx_universal2", version = "3.13", url = "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/python-3.13.0rc2-macos11.pkg" },
  { identifier = "pp37-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.7", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.7-v7.3.9-osx64.tar.bz2" },
  { identifier = "pp38-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.8", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.8-v7.3.11-macos_x86_64.tar.bz2" },
  { identifier = "pp38-macosx_arm64", version = "3.8", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.8-v7.3.11-macos_arm64.tar.bz2" },
  { identifier = "pp39-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.9", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.9-v7.3.16-macos_x86_64.tar.bz2" },
  { identifier = "pp39-macosx_arm64", version = "3.9", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.9-v7.3.16-macos_arm64.tar.bz2" },
-  { identifier = "pp310-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.10", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.10-v7.3.16-macos_x86_64.tar.bz2" },
-  { identifier = "pp310-macosx_arm64", version = "3.10", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.10-v7.3.16-macos_arm64.tar.bz2" },
+  { identifier = "pp310-macosx_x86_64", version = "3.10", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.10-v7.3.17-macos_x86_64.tar.bz2" },
+  { identifier = "pp310-macosx_arm64", version = "3.10", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.10-v7.3.17-macos_arm64.tar.bz2" },
 ]

 [windows]
@@ -152,22 +152,22 @@ python_configurations = [
  { identifier = "cp310-win_amd64", version = "3.10.11", arch = "64" },
  { identifier = "cp311-win32", version = "3.11.9", arch = "32" },
  { identifier = "cp311-win_amd64", version = "3.11.9", arch = "64" },
-  { identifier = "cp312-win32", version = "3.12.4", arch = "32" },
-  { identifier = "cp312-win_amd64", version = "3.12.4", arch = "64" },
-  { identifier = "cp313-win32", version = "3.13.0-b3", arch = "32" },
-  { identifier = "cp313t-win32", version = "3.13.0-b3", arch = "32" },
-  { identifier = "cp313-win_amd64", version = "3.13.0-b3", arch = "64" },
-  { identifier = "cp313t-win_amd64", version = "3.13.0-b3", arch = "64" },
+  { identifier = "cp312-win32", version = "3.12.6", arch = "32" },
+  { identifier = "cp312-win_amd64", version = "3.12.6", arch = "64" },
+  { identifier = "cp313-win32", version = "3.13.0-rc2", arch = "32" },
+  { identifier = "cp313t-win32", version = "3.13.0-rc2", arch = "32" },
+  { identifier = "cp313-win_amd64", version = "3.13.0-rc2", arch = "64" },
+  { identifier = "cp313t-win_amd64", version = "3.13.0-rc2", arch = "64" },
  { identifier = "cp39-win_arm64", version = "3.9.10", arch = "ARM64" },
  { identifier = "cp310-win_arm64", version = "3.10.11", arch = "ARM64" },
  { identifier = "cp311-win_arm64", version = "3.11.9", arch = "ARM64" },
-  { identifier = "cp312-win_arm64", version = "3.12.4", arch = "ARM64" },
-  { identifier = "cp313-win_arm64", version = "3.13.0-b3", arch = "ARM64" },
-  { identifier = "cp313t-win_arm64", version = "3.13.0-b3", arch = "ARM64" },
+  { identifier = "cp312-win_arm64", version = "3.12.6", arch = "ARM64" },
+  { identifier = "cp313-win_arm64", version = "3.13.0-rc2", arch = "ARM64" },
+  { identifier = "cp313t-win_arm64", version = "3.13.0-rc2", arch = "ARM64" },
  { identifier = "pp37-win_amd64", version = "3.7", arch = "64", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.7-v7.3.9-win64.zip" },
  { identifier = "pp38-win_amd64", version = "3.8", arch = "64", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.8-v7.3.11-win64.zip" },
  { identifier = "pp39-win_amd64", version = "3.9", arch = "64", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.9-v7.3.16-win64.zip" },
-  { identifier = "pp310-win_amd64", version = "3.10", arch = "64", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.10-v7.3.16-win64.zip" },
+  { identifier = "pp310-win_amd64", version = "3.10", arch = "64", url = "https://downloads.python.org/pypy/pypy3.10-v7.3.17-win64.zip" },
 ]

 [pyodide]
@@ -4,13 +4,13 @@ annotated-types==0.7.0
    # via pydantic
 anyio==4.4.0
    # via httpx
-auditwheel-emscripten==0.0.15
+auditwheel-emscripten==0.0.16
    # via pyodide-build
-build==1.2.1
+build==1.2.2
    # via
    #   -r .nox/update_constraints/tmp/constraints-pyodide.in
    #   pyodide-build
-certifi==2024.6.2
+certifi==2024.8.30
    # via
    #   httpcore
    #   httpx
@@ -21,19 +21,19 @@ click==8.1.7
    # via typer
 cloudpickle==3.0.0
    # via loky
-cmake==3.29.6
+cmake==3.30.3
    # via pyodide-build
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
-filelock==3.15.4
+filelock==3.16.0
    # via virtualenv
 h11==0.14.0
    # via httpcore
 httpcore==1.0.5
    # via httpx
-httpx==0.27.0
+httpx==0.27.2
    # via unearth
-idna==3.7
+idna==3.10
    # via
    #   anyio
    #   httpx
@@ -52,15 +52,15 @@ packaging==24.1
    #   build
    #   pyodide-build
    #   unearth
-pip==24.1.1
+pip==24.2
    # via -r .nox/update_constraints/tmp/constraints-pyodide.in
-platformdirs==4.2.2
+platformdirs==4.3.3
    # via virtualenv
-pydantic==2.8.0
+pydantic==2.9.1
    # via
    #   pyodide-build
    #   pyodide-lock
-pydantic-core==2.20.0
+pydantic-core==2.23.3
    # via pydantic
 pygments==2.18.0
    # via rich
@@ -74,13 +74,13 @@ pyodide-lock==0.1.0a6
    # via pyodide-build
 pyproject-hooks==1.1.0
    # via build
-pyyaml==6.0.1
+pyyaml==6.0.2
    # via pyodide-build
 requests==2.32.3
    # via pyodide-build
 resolvelib==1.0.1
    # via pyodide-build
-rich==13.7.1
+rich==13.8.1
    # via
    #   pyodide-build
    #   pyodide-cli
@@ -95,29 +95,29 @@ sniffio==1.3.1
    # via
    #   anyio
    #   httpx
-typer==0.12.3
+typer==0.12.5
    # via
    #   auditwheel-emscripten
    #   pyodide-build
    #   pyodide-cli
-types-requests==2.32.0.20240622
+types-requests==2.32.0.20240914
    # via pyodide-build
 typing-extensions==4.12.2
    # via
    #   pydantic
    #   pydantic-core
    #   typer
-unearth==0.15.5
+unearth==0.17.2
    # via pyodide-build
-urllib3==2.2.2
+urllib3==2.2.3
    # via
    #   requests
    #   types-requests
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via
    #   build
    #   pyodide-build
-wheel==0.43.0
+wheel==0.44.0
    # via
    #   auditwheel-emscripten
    #   pyodide-build
@@ -2,15 +2,15 @@
 #    nox -s update_constraints
 altgraph==0.17.4
    # via macholib
-build==1.2.1
+build==1.2.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-delocate==0.11.0
+delocate==0.12.0
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
-filelock==3.15.4
+filelock==3.16.0
    # via virtualenv
-importlib-metadata==8.0.0
+importlib-metadata==8.5.0
    # via build
 macholib==1.16.3
    # via delocate
@@ -18,9 +18,9 @@ packaging==24.1
    # via
    #   build
    #   delocate
-pip==24.1.1
+pip==24.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-platformdirs==4.2.2
+platformdirs==4.3.3
    # via virtualenv
 pyproject-hooks==1.1.0
    # via build
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ tomli==2.0.1
    # via build
 typing-extensions==4.12.2
    # via delocate
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-zipp==3.19.2
+zipp==3.20.2
    # via importlib-metadata
@@ -2,13 +2,13 @@
 #    nox -s update_constraints
 altgraph==0.17.4
    # via macholib
-build==1.2.1
+build==1.2.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-delocate==0.11.0
+delocate==0.12.0
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
-filelock==3.15.4
+filelock==3.16.0
    # via virtualenv
 macholib==1.16.3
    # via delocate
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@ packaging==24.1
    # via
    #   build
    #   delocate
-pip==24.1.1
+pip==24.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-platformdirs==4.2.2
+platformdirs==4.3.3
    # via virtualenv
 pyproject-hooks==1.1.0
    # via build
 typing-extensions==4.12.2
    # via delocate
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
@@ -2,13 +2,13 @@
 #    nox -s update_constraints
 altgraph==0.17.4
    # via macholib
-build==1.2.1
+build==1.2.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-delocate==0.11.0
+delocate==0.12.0
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
-filelock==3.15.4
+filelock==3.16.0
    # via virtualenv
 macholib==1.16.3
    # via delocate
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@ packaging==24.1
    # via
    #   build
    #   delocate
-pip==24.1.1
+pip==24.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-platformdirs==4.2.2
+platformdirs==4.3.3
    # via virtualenv
 pyproject-hooks==1.1.0
    # via build
 typing-extensions==4.12.2
    # via delocate
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
@@ -2,13 +2,13 @@
 #    nox -s update_constraints
 altgraph==0.17.4
    # via macholib
-build==1.2.1
+build==1.2.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-delocate==0.11.0
+delocate==0.12.0
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
-filelock==3.15.4
+filelock==3.16.0
    # via virtualenv
 macholib==1.16.3
    # via delocate
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@ packaging==24.1
    # via
    #   build
    #   delocate
-pip==24.1.1
+pip==24.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-platformdirs==4.2.2
+platformdirs==4.3.3
    # via virtualenv
 pyproject-hooks==1.1.0
    # via build
 typing-extensions==4.12.2
    # via delocate
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ altgraph==0.17.4
    # via macholib
 build==1.1.1
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-delocate==0.11.0
+delocate==0.12.0
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ typing-extensions==4.7.1
    #   delocate
    #   importlib-metadata
    #   platformdirs
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 zipp==3.15.0
    # via importlib-metadata
@@ -2,15 +2,15 @@
 #    nox -s update_constraints
 altgraph==0.17.4
    # via macholib
-build==1.2.1
+build==1.2.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-delocate==0.11.0
+delocate==0.12.0
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
-filelock==3.15.4
+filelock==3.16.0
    # via virtualenv
-importlib-metadata==8.0.0
+importlib-metadata==8.5.0
    # via build
 macholib==1.16.3
    # via delocate
@@ -18,9 +18,9 @@ packaging==24.1
    # via
    #   build
    #   delocate
-pip==24.1.1
+pip==24.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-platformdirs==4.2.2
+platformdirs==4.3.3
    # via virtualenv
 pyproject-hooks==1.1.0
    # via build
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ tomli==2.0.1
    # via build
 typing-extensions==4.12.2
    # via delocate
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-zipp==3.19.2
+zipp==3.20.2
    # via importlib-metadata
@@ -2,15 +2,15 @@
 #    nox -s update_constraints
 altgraph==0.17.4
    # via macholib
-build==1.2.1
+build==1.2.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-delocate==0.11.0
+delocate==0.12.0
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
-filelock==3.15.4
+filelock==3.16.0
    # via virtualenv
-importlib-metadata==8.0.0
+importlib-metadata==8.5.0
    # via build
 macholib==1.16.3
    # via delocate
@@ -18,9 +18,9 @@ packaging==24.1
    # via
    #   build
    #   delocate
-pip==24.1.1
+pip==24.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-platformdirs==4.2.2
+platformdirs==4.3.3
    # via virtualenv
 pyproject-hooks==1.1.0
    # via build
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ tomli==2.0.1
    # via build
 typing-extensions==4.12.2
    # via delocate
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-zipp==3.19.2
+zipp==3.20.2
    # via importlib-metadata
@@ -2,13 +2,13 @@
 #    nox -s update_constraints
 altgraph==0.17.4
    # via macholib
-build==1.2.1
+build==1.2.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-delocate==0.11.0
+delocate==0.12.0
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
 distlib==0.3.8
    # via virtualenv
-filelock==3.15.4
+filelock==3.16.0
    # via virtualenv
 macholib==1.16.3
    # via delocate
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@ packaging==24.1
    # via
    #   build
    #   delocate
-pip==24.1.1
+pip==24.2
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
-platformdirs==4.2.2
+platformdirs==4.3.3
    # via virtualenv
 pyproject-hooks==1.1.0
    # via build
 typing-extensions==4.12.2
    # via delocate
-virtualenv==20.26.3
+virtualenv==20.26.4
    # via -r cibuildwheel/resources/constraints.in
@@ -1,2 +1,2 @@
 url = "https://nodejs.org/dist/"
-v20 = "v20.15.0"
+v20 = "v20.17.0"
@@ -1,54 +1,54 @@
 [x86_64]
 manylinux1 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux1_x86_64:2024-04-29-76807b8
 manylinux2010 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2010_x86_64:2022-08-05-4535177
-manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_x86_64:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_x86_64:2024.09.16-1
 manylinux_2_24 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_24_x86_64:2022-12-26-0d38463
-manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_x86_64:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_x86_64:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_x86_64:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_x86_64:2024.09.16-1
+musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_x86_64:2024.09.16-1
+musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_x86_64:2024.09.16-1

 [i686]
 manylinux1 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux1_i686:2024-04-29-76807b8
 manylinux2010 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2010_i686:2022-08-05-4535177
-manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_i686:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_i686:2024.09.16-1
 manylinux_2_24 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_24_i686:2022-12-26-0d38463
-musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_i686:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_i686:2024.07.02-0
+musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_i686:2024.09.16-1
+musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_i686:2024.09.16-1

 [pypy_x86_64]
 manylinux2010 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2010_x86_64:2022-08-05-4535177
-manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_x86_64:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_x86_64:2024.09.16-1
 manylinux_2_24 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_24_x86_64:2022-12-26-0d38463
-manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_x86_64:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_x86_64:2024.09.16-1

 [pypy_i686]
 manylinux2010 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2010_i686:2022-08-05-4535177
-manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_i686:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_i686:2024.09.16-1
 manylinux_2_24 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_24_i686:2022-12-26-0d38463

 [aarch64]
-manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_aarch64:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_aarch64:2024.09.16-1
 manylinux_2_24 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_24_aarch64:2022-12-26-0d38463
-manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_aarch64:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_aarch64:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_aarch64:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_aarch64:2024.09.09-0
+musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_aarch64:2024.09.09-0
+musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_aarch64:2024.09.09-0

 [ppc64le]
-manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_ppc64le:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_ppc64le:2024.09.09-0
 manylinux_2_24 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_24_ppc64le:2022-12-26-0d38463
-manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_ppc64le:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_ppc64le:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_ppc64le:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_ppc64le:2024.09.09-0
+musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_ppc64le:2024.09.09-0
+musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_ppc64le:2024.09.09-0

 [s390x]
-manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_s390x:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_s390x:2024.09.09-0
 manylinux_2_24 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_24_s390x:2022-12-26-0d38463
-manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_s390x:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_s390x:2024.07.02-0
-musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_s390x:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_s390x:2024.09.09-0
+musllinux_1_1 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_s390x:2024.09.09-0
+musllinux_1_2 = quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_s390x:2024.09.09-0

 [pypy_aarch64]
-manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_aarch64:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux2014 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_aarch64:2024.09.16-1
 manylinux_2_24 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_24_aarch64:2022-12-26-0d38463
-manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_aarch64:2024.07.02-0
+manylinux_2_28 = quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_aarch64:2024.09.09-0

@@ -1,2 +1,2 @@
 py36 = { version = "20.21.1", url = "https://github.com/pypa/get-virtualenv/blob/20.21.1/public/virtualenv.pyz?raw=true" }
-default = { version = "20.26.3", url = "https://github.com/pypa/get-virtualenv/blob/20.26.3/public/virtualenv.pyz?raw=true" }
+default = { version = "20.26.4", url = "https://github.com/pypa/get-virtualenv/blob/20.26.4/public/virtualenv.pyz?raw=true" }
@@ -248,7 +248,7 @@ class BuildSelector:
    requires_python: SpecifierSet | None = None

    # a pattern that skips prerelease versions, when include_prereleases is False.
-    PRERELEASE_SKIP: ClassVar[str] = "cp313-* cp313t-*"
+    PRERELEASE_SKIP: ClassVar[str] = ""
    prerelease_pythons: bool = False

    free_threaded_support: bool = False
@@ -462,37 +462,6 @@ class BuildFrontendConfig:
            return {"name": self.name, "args": repr(self.args)}


-class NonPlatformWheelError(Exception):
-    def __init__(self) -> None:
-        message = textwrap.dedent(
-            """
-            cibuildwheel: Build failed because a pure Python wheel was generated.
-
-            If you intend to build a pure-Python wheel, you don't need cibuildwheel - use
-            `pip wheel -w DEST_DIR .` instead.
-
-            If you expected a platform wheel, check your project configuration, or run
-            cibuildwheel with CIBW_BUILD_VERBOSITY=1 to view build logs.
-            """
-        )
-
-        super().__init__(message)
-
-
-class AlreadyBuiltWheelError(Exception):
-    def __init__(self, wheel_name: str) -> None:
-        message = textwrap.dedent(
-            f"""
-            cibuildwheel: Build failed because a wheel named {wheel_name} was already generated in the current run.
-
-            If you expected another wheel to be generated, check your project configuration, or run
-            cibuildwheel with CIBW_BUILD_VERBOSITY=1 to view build logs.
-            """
-        )
-
-        super().__init__(message)
-
-
 def strtobool(val: str) -> bool:
    return val.lower() in {"y", "yes", "t", "true", "on", "1"}

@@ -22,11 +22,9 @@ from .options import Options
 from .typing import PathOrStr
 from .util import (
    CIBW_CACHE_PATH,
-    AlreadyBuiltWheelError,
    BuildFrontendConfig,
    BuildFrontendName,
    BuildSelector,
-    NonPlatformWheelError,
    call,
    combine_constraints,
    download,
@@ -154,6 +152,16 @@ def setup_setuptools_cross_compile(
    # set the platform name
    map_plat = {"32": "win32", "64": "win-amd64", "ARM64": "win-arm64"}
    plat_name = map_plat[python_configuration.arch]
+
+    # Set environment variable so that setuptools._distutils.get_platform()
+    # identifies the target, not the host
+    vscmd_arg_tgt_arch = {"32": "x86", "64": "x64", "ARM64": "arm64"}
+    current_tgt_arch = vscmd_arg_tgt_arch[python_configuration.arch]
+    if (env.get("VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH") or current_tgt_arch) != current_tgt_arch:
+        msg = f"VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH must be set to {current_tgt_arch!r}, got {env['VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH']!r}. If you're setting up MSVC yourself (e.g. using vcvarsall.bat or msvc-dev-cmd), make sure to target the right architecture. Alternatively, run cibuildwheel without configuring MSVC, and let the build backend handle it."
+        raise errors.FatalError(msg)
+    env["VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH"] = current_tgt_arch
+
    # (This file must be default/locale encoding, so we can't pass 'encoding')
    distutils_cfg.write_text(
        textwrap.dedent(
@@ -217,6 +225,14 @@ def setup_rust_cross_compile(
        )


+def can_use_uv(python_configuration: PythonConfiguration) -> bool:
+    conditions = (
+        Version(python_configuration.version) >= Version("3.8"),
+        not python_configuration.identifier.startswith("pp38-"),
+    )
+    return all(conditions)
+
+
 def setup_python(
    tmp: Path,
    python_configuration: PythonConfiguration,
@@ -246,9 +262,10 @@ def setup_python(
        raise ValueError(msg)
    assert base_python.exists()

-    use_uv = build_frontend == "build[uv]" and Version(python_configuration.version) >= Version(
-        "3.8"
-    )
+    if build_frontend == "build[uv]" and not can_use_uv(python_configuration):
+        build_frontend = "build"
+
+    use_uv = build_frontend == "build[uv]"
    uv_path = find_uv()

    log.step("Setting up build environment...")
@@ -358,9 +375,7 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:
        for config in python_configurations:
            build_options = options.build_options(config.identifier)
            build_frontend = build_options.build_frontend or BuildFrontendConfig("pip")
-            use_uv = build_frontend.name == "build[uv]" and Version(config.version) >= Version(
-                "3.8"
-            )
+            use_uv = build_frontend.name == "build[uv]" and can_use_uv(config)
            log.build_start(config.identifier)

            identifier_tmp_dir = tmp_path / config.identifier
@@ -462,7 +477,7 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:
                repaired_wheel_dir.mkdir()

                if built_wheel.name.endswith("none-any.whl"):
-                    raise NonPlatformWheelError()
+                    raise errors.NonPlatformWheelError()

                if build_options.repair_command:
                    log.step("Repairing wheel...")
@@ -478,7 +493,7 @@ def build(options: Options, tmp_path: Path) -> None:
                repaired_wheel = next(repaired_wheel_dir.glob("*.whl"))

                if repaired_wheel.name in {wheel.name for wheel in built_wheels}:
-                    raise AlreadyBuiltWheelError(repaired_wheel.name)
+                    raise errors.AlreadyBuiltWheelError(repaired_wheel.name)

            test_selected = options.globals.test_selector(config.identifier)
            if test_selected and config.arch == "ARM64" != platform_module.machine():
@@ -4,20 +4,57 @@ title: Changelog

 # Changelog

+### v2.21.1
+
+_16 September 2024_
+
+- 🐛 Fix a bug in the Linux build, where files copied to the container would have invalid ownership permissions (#2007)
+- 🐛 Fix a bug on Windows where cibuildwheel would call upon `uv` to install dependencies for versions of CPython that it does not support (#2005)
+- 🐛 Fix a bug where `uv 0.4.10` would not use the right Python when testing on Linux. (#2008)
+- 🛠 Bump our documentation pins, fixes an issue with a missing package (#2011)
+
+### v2.21.0
+
+_13 September 2024_
+
+- ⚠️ Update CPython 3.12 to 3.12.6, which changes the macOS minimum deployment target on CPython 3.12 from macOS 10.9 to macOS 10.13 (#1998)
+- 🛠 Changes the behaviour when inheriting `config-settings` in TOML overrides - rather than extending each key, which is rarely useful, individual keys will override previously set values. (#1803)
+- 🛠 Update CPython 3.13 to 3.13.0rc2 (#1998)
+- ✨ Adds support for multiarch OCI images (#1961)
+- 🐛 Fixes some bugs building Linux wheels on macOS. (#1961)
+- ⚠️ Changes the minimum version of Docker/Podman to Docker API version 1.43, Podman API version 3. The only mainstream runner this should affect is Travis Graviton2 runners - if so you can [upgrade your version of Docker](https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel/pull/1961#issuecomment-2304060019). (#1961)
+
+
+### v2.20.0
+
+_4 August 2024_
+
+- 🌟 CPython 3.13 wheels are now built by default - without the `CIBW_PRERELEASE_PYTHONS` flag. It's time to build and upload these wheels to PyPI! This release includes CPython 3.13.0rc1, which is guaranteed to be ABI compatible with the final release. Free-threading is still behind a flag/config option. (#1950)
+- ✨ Provide a `CIBW_ALLOW_EMPTY` environment variable as an alternative to the command line flag. (#1937)
+- 🐛 Don't use uv on PyPy3.8 on Windows, it stopped working starting in 0.2.25. Note that PyPy 3.8 is EoL. (#1868)
+- 🛠 Set the `VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH` variable based on target arch. (#1876)
+- 🛠 Undo cleaner output on pytest 8-8.2 now that 8.3 is out. (#1943)
+- 📚 Update examples to use Python 3.12 on host  (cibuildwheel will require Python 3.11+ on the host machine starting in October 2024) (#1919)
+
+
 ### v2.19.2

+_2 July 2024_
+
 - 🐛 Update manylinux2014 pins to versions that support past-EoL CentOS 7 mirrors. (#1917)
 - 🐛 Support `--no-isolation` with `build[uv]` build-frontend. (#1889)
 - 🛠 Provide attestations for releases at <https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel/attestations>. (#1916)
 - 🛠 Provide CPython 3.13.0b3. (#1913)
 - 🛠 Remove some workarounds now that pip 21.1 is available. (#1891, #1892)
 - 📚 Remove nosetest from our docs. (#1821)
- 📚 Document the macOS ARM workaround for 3.8 on GHA. (#1971)
+- 📚 Document the macOS ARM workaround for 3.8 on GHA. (#1871)
 - 📚 GitLab CI + macOS is now a supported platform with an example. (#1911)


 ### v2.19.1

+_13 June 2024_
+
 - 🐛 Don't require setup-python on GHA for Pyodide (#1868)
 - 🐛 Specify full python path for uv (fixes issue in 0.2.10 & 0.2.11) (#1881)
 - 🛠 Update for pip 24.1b2 on CPython 3.13. (#1879)
@@ -27,6 +64,8 @@ title: Changelog

 ### v2.19.0

+_10 June 2024_
+
 See the [release post](https://iscinumpy.dev/post/cibuildwheel-2-19-0/) for more info on new features!

 - 🌟 Add Pyodide platform. Set with `--platform pyodide` or `CIBW_PLATFORM: pyodide` on Linux with a host Python 3.12 to build WebAssembly wheels. Not accepted on PyPI currently, but usable directly in a website using Pyodide, for live docs, etc. (#1456, #1859)
@@ -45,6 +84,8 @@ See the [release post](https://iscinumpy.dev/post/cibuildwheel-2-19-0/) for more

 ### v2.18.1

+_20 May 2024_
+
 - 🌟 Add free-threaded Linux and Windows builds for 3.13. New identifiers `cp313t-*`, new option `CIBW_FREE_THREADED_SUPPORT`/`tool.cibuildwheel.free-threaded-support` required to opt-in. [See the docs](https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#free-threaded-support) for more information. (#1831)
 - ✨ The `container-engine` is now a build (non-global) option. (#1792)
 - 🛠 The build backend for cibuildwheel is now hatchling. (#1297)
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ You can see a list of sessions by typing `nox -l`; here are a few common ones:
 ```console
 nox -s lint                    # Run the linters (default)
 nox -s tests [-- PYTEST-ARGS]  # Run the tests   (default)
-nox -s docs -- serve           # Build and serve the documentation
+nox -s docs                    # Build and serve the documentation
 nox -s build                   # Make SDist and wheel
 ```

@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ There are two suggested methods for keeping cibuildwheel up to date that instead
 If you use GitHub Actions for builds, you can use cibuildwheel as an action:

 ```yaml
-uses: pypa/cibuildwheel@v2.19.2
+uses: pypa/cibuildwheel@v2.21.1
 ```

 This is a composite step that just runs cibuildwheel using pipx. You can set command-line options as `with:` parameters, and use `env:` as normal.
@@ -164,7 +164,7 @@ The second option, and the only one that supports other CI systems, is using a `

 ```bash
 # requirements-cibw.txt
-cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+cibuildwheel==2.21.1
 ```

 Then your install step would have `python -m pip install -r requirements-cibw.txt` in it. Your `.github/dependabot.yml` file could look like this:
@@ -328,7 +328,7 @@ Solutions to this vary, but the simplest is to use pipx:
 # most runners have pipx preinstalled, but in case you don't
 python3 -m pip install pipx

-pipx run cibuildwheel==2.19.2 --output-dir wheelhouse
+pipx run cibuildwheel==2.21.1 --output-dir wheelhouse
 pipx run twine upload wheelhouse/*.whl
 ```

@@ -621,6 +621,28 @@ This option can also be set using the [command-line option](#command-line) `--pr
    CIBW_PRERELEASE_PYTHONS: True
    ```

+### `CIBW_ALLOW_EMPTY` {: #allow-empty}
+> Suppress the error code if no wheels match the specified build identifiers
+
+When none of the specified build identifiers match any available versions,
+cibuildwheel will typically return error code 3, indicating that there are
+no wheels to build. Enabling this option will suppress this error, allowing
+the build process to complete without signaling an error.
+
+Default: Off (0). Error code 3 is returned when no builds are selected.
+
+This option can also be set using the [command-line option](#command-line)
+`--allow-empty`. This option is not available in the `pyproject.toml` config.
+
+#### Examples
+
+!!! tab examples "Environment variables"
+
+    ```yaml
+    # Prevent an error code if the build does not match any wheels
+    CIBW_ALLOW_EMPTY: True
+    ```
+
 ## Build customization

 ### `CIBW_BUILD_FRONTEND` {: #build-frontend}
@@ -1667,7 +1689,7 @@ cibuildwheel exits 0 on success, or >0 if an error occurs.
 Specific error codes are defined:

 - 2 means a configuration error
- 3 means no builds are selected (and --allow-empty wasn't passed)
+- 3 means no builds are selected (and [`--allow-empty`](#allow-empty) wasn't passed)
 - 4 means you specified an option that has been deprecated.


@@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ To build Linux, Mac, and Windows wheels using GitHub Actions, create a `.github/
          - uses: actions/checkout@v4

          - name: Build wheels
-            run: pipx run cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+            run: pipx run cibuildwheel==2.21.1

          - uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
            with:
@@ -198,7 +198,7 @@ To build Linux, Mac, and Windows wheels using GitHub Actions, create a `.github/
          - uses: actions/setup-python@v5

          - name: Install cibuildwheel
-            run: python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+            run: python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1

          - name: Build wheels
            run: python -m cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
@@ -11,8 +11,8 @@ title: Working examples
 | [scikit-learn][]                  | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | The machine learning library. A complex but clean config using many of cibuildwheel's features to build a large project with Cython and C++ extensions.  |
 | [pytorch-fairseq][]               | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Facebook AI Research Sequence-to-Sequence Toolkit written in Python. |
 | [NumPy][]                         | ![github icon][] ![travisci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | The fundamental package for scientific computing with Python. |
-| [Tornado][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![linux icon][] ![apple icon][] ![windows icon][] | Tornado is a Python web framework and asynchronous networking library. Uses stable ABI for a small C extension. |
 | [duckdb][]                        | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | DuckDB is an analytical in-process SQL database management system |
+| [Tornado][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![linux icon][] ![apple icon][] ![windows icon][] | Tornado is a Python web framework and asynchronous networking library. Uses stable ABI for a small C extension. |
 | [NCNN][]                          | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | ncnn is a high-performance neural network inference framework optimized for the mobile platform |
 | [Matplotlib][]                    | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | The venerable Matplotlib, a Python library with C++ portions |
 | [Prophet][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Tool for producing high quality forecasts for time series data that has multiple seasonality with linear or non-linear growth. |
@@ -38,7 +38,6 @@ title: Working examples
 | [UltraJSON][]                     | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Ultra fast JSON decoder and encoder written in C with Python bindings |
 | [OpenSpiel][]                     | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | OpenSpiel is a collection of environments and algorithms for research in general reinforcement learning and search/planning in games. |
 | [aiortc][]                        | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | WebRTC and ORTC implementation for Python using asyncio. |
-| [Confluent client for Kafka][]    | ![travisci icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | setup in `tools/wheels/build-wheels.bat` |
 | [Dependency Injector][]           | ![travisci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Dependency injection framework for Python, uses Windows TravisCI |
 | [pyzmq][]                         | ![github icon][] ![circleci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Python bindings for zeromq, the networking library. Uses Cython on CPython and CFFI on PyPy. ARM wheels for linux are built natively on CircleCI.  |
 | [Implicit][]                      | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Includes GPU support for linux wheels |
@@ -56,20 +55,20 @@ title: Working examples
 | [Wrapt][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A Python module for decorators, wrappers and monkey patching. |
 | [envd][]                          | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | A machine learning development environment build tool |
 | [OpenColorIO][]                   | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | A color management framework for visual effects and animation. |
-| [SimpleJSON][]                    | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | simplejson is a simple, fast, extensible JSON encoder/decoder for Python  |
-| [aioquic][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | QUIC and HTTP/3 implementation in Python |
 | [Psycopg 3][]                     | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A modern implementation of a PostgreSQL adapter for Python |
+| [aioquic][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | QUIC and HTTP/3 implementation in Python |
+| [SimpleJSON][]                    | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | simplejson is a simple, fast, extensible JSON encoder/decoder for Python  |
 | [ruptures][]                      | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Extensive Cython + NumPy [pyproject.toml](https://github.com/deepcharles/ruptures/blob/master/pyproject.toml) example. |
 | [OpenTimelineIO][]                | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Open Source API and interchange format for editorial timeline information. |
 | [PyTables][]                      | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A Python package to manage extremely large amounts of data |
-| [Parselmouth][]                   | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A Python interface to the Praat software package, using pybind11, C++17 and CMake, with the core Praat static library built only once and shared between wheels. |
 | [google neuroglancer][]           | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | WebGL-based viewer for volumetric data |
+| [Parselmouth][]                   | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A Python interface to the Praat software package, using pybind11, C++17 and CMake, with the core Praat static library built only once and shared between wheels. |
 | [DeepForest][]                    | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | An Efficient, Scalable and Optimized Python Framework for Deep Forest (2021.2.1) |
 | [AutoPy][]                        | ![travisci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Includes a Windows Travis build. |
 | [H3-py][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Python bindings for H3, a hierarchical hexagonal geospatial indexing system |
 | [mosec][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![linux icon][] ![apple icon][] | A machine learning model serving framework powered by Rust |
-| [Picologging][]                   | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A high-performance logging library for Python. |
 | [time-machine][]                  | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Time mocking library using only the CPython C API. |
+| [Picologging][]                   | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A high-performance logging library for Python. |
 | [markupsafe][]                    | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Safely add untrusted strings to HTML/XML markup. |
 | [Rtree][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Rtree: spatial index for Python GIS |
 | [pybind11 cmake_example][]        | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Example pybind11 module built with a CMake-based build system |
@@ -82,16 +81,16 @@ title: Working examples
 | [abess][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A fast best-subset selection library. It uses cibuildwheel to build a large project with C++ extensions. |
 | [sourmash][]                      | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Quickly search, compare, and analyze genomic and metagenomic data sets. |
 | [cyvcf2][]                        | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | cython + htslib == fast VCF and BCF processing |
-| [matrixprofile][]                 | ![travisci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A Python 3 library making time series data mining tasks, utilizing matrix profile algorithms, accessible to everyone. |
 | [jq.py][]                         | ![travisci icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Python bindings for jq |
+| [matrixprofile][]                 | ![travisci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A Python 3 library making time series data mining tasks, utilizing matrix profile algorithms, accessible to everyone. |
 | [iminuit][]                       | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Jupyter-friendly Python interface for C++ MINUIT2 |
 | [Tokenizer][]                     | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Fast and customizable text tokenization library with BPE and SentencePiece support |
 | [keyvi][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![linux icon][] ![apple icon][] | FST based key value index highly optimized for size and lookup performance, utilizes ccache action for improved runtime |
-| [PyGLM][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Fast OpenGL Mathematics (GLM) for Python |
 | [pillow-heif][]                   | ![github icon][] ![cirrusci icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Bindings to libheif library with third party dependencies. Fully automated CI for tests and publishing including Apple Silicon builds. |
+| [PyGLM][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Fast OpenGL Mathematics (GLM) for Python |
 | [TgCrypto][]                      | ![travisci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Includes a Windows Travis build. |
-| [streaming-form-data][]           | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Streaming parser for multipart/form-data written in Cython |
 | [iDynTree][]                      | ![github icon][] | ![linux icon][] | Uses manylinux_2_24 |
+| [streaming-form-data][]           | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Streaming parser for multipart/form-data written in Cython |
 | [bx-python][]                     | ![travisci icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A library that includes Cython extensions. |
 | [boost-histogram][]               | ![github icon][] ![travisci icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Supports full range of wheels, including PyPy and alternate archs. |
 | [power-grid-model][]              | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Python/C++ library for distribution power system analysis |
@@ -102,6 +101,7 @@ title: Working examples
 | [Arbor][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Arbor is a multi-compartment neuron simulation library; compatible with next-generation accelerators; best-practices applied to research software; focused on community-driven development. Includes a [small script](https://github.com/arbor-sim/arbor/blob/master/scripts/patchwheel.py) patching `rpath` in bundled libraries.  |
 | [pybind11 scikit_build_example][] | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | An example combining scikit-build and pybind11 |
 | [polaroid][]                      | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Full range of wheels for setuptools rust, with auto release and PyPI deploy. |
+| [Confluent client for Kafka][]    | ![travisci icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | setup in `tools/wheels/build-wheels.bat` |
 | [clang-format][]                  | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Scikit-build wrapper around LLVM's CMake, all platforms, generic wheels. |
 | [etebase-py][]                    | ![travisci icon][] | ![linux icon][] | Python bindings to a Rust library using `setuptools-rust`, and `sccache` for improved speed. |
 | [cf-units][]                      | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Units of measure as required by the Climate and Forecast (CF) Metadata Conventions |
@@ -109,20 +109,20 @@ title: Working examples
 | [numpythia][]                     | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | The interface between PYTHIA and NumPy |
 | [pyjet][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | The interface between FastJet and NumPy |
 | [ril][]                           | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A python binding to Rust Imaging library using maturin and Pyo3, utilizes Github Action cache to improve speed. Builds abi3 wheels. |
-| [GSD][]                           | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Cython and NumPy project with 64-bit wheels. |
 | [SiPM][]                          | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | High performance library for SiPM detectors simulation using C++17, OpenMP and AVX2 intrinsics. |
+| [GSD][]                           | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] ![windows icon][] | Cython and NumPy project with 64-bit wheels. |
 | [aalink][]                        | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Async Python interface for Ableton Link. |
 | [CorrectionLib][]                 | ![github icon][] | ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Structured JSON powered correction library for HEP, designed for the CMS experiment at CERN. |
 | [xmlstarlet][]                    | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Python 3.6+ CFFI bindings with true MSVC build. |
-| [pyinstrument_cext][]             | ![travisci icon][] ![appveyor icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A simple C extension, without external dependencies |
 | [werpy][]                         | ![github icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![linux icon][] ![apple icon][] | An ultra-fast python package using optimized dynamic programming to compute the Word Error Rate (WER). |
+| [pyinstrument_cext][]             | ![travisci icon][] ![appveyor icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | A simple C extension, without external dependencies |
 | [pybind11 cross build example][]  | ![github icon][] ![gitlab icon][] | ![windows icon][] ![apple icon][] ![linux icon][] | Same as pybind11 cmake_example but used to demo Linux ARM + Windows + macOS builds on GitLab |

 [scikit-learn]: https://github.com/scikit-learn/scikit-learn
 [pytorch-fairseq]: https://github.com/facebookresearch/fairseq
 [NumPy]: https://github.com/numpy/numpy
-[Tornado]: https://github.com/tornadoweb/tornado
 [duckdb]: https://github.com/duckdb/duckdb
+[Tornado]: https://github.com/tornadoweb/tornado
 [NCNN]: https://github.com/Tencent/ncnn
 [Matplotlib]: https://github.com/matplotlib/matplotlib
 [Prophet]: https://github.com/facebook/prophet
@@ -148,7 +148,6 @@ title: Working examples
 [UltraJSON]: https://github.com/ultrajson/ultrajson
 [OpenSpiel]: https://github.com/google-deepmind/open_spiel
 [aiortc]: https://github.com/aiortc/aiortc
-[Confluent client for Kafka]: https://github.com/confluentinc/confluent-kafka-python
 [Dependency Injector]: https://github.com/ets-labs/python-dependency-injector
 [pyzmq]: https://github.com/zeromq/pyzmq
 [Implicit]: https://github.com/benfred/implicit
@@ -166,20 +165,20 @@ title: Working examples
 [Wrapt]: https://github.com/GrahamDumpleton/wrapt
 [envd]: https://github.com/tensorchord/envd
 [OpenColorIO]: https://github.com/AcademySoftwareFoundation/OpenColorIO
-[SimpleJSON]: https://github.com/simplejson/simplejson
-[aioquic]: https://github.com/aiortc/aioquic
 [Psycopg 3]: https://github.com/psycopg/psycopg
+[aioquic]: https://github.com/aiortc/aioquic
+[SimpleJSON]: https://github.com/simplejson/simplejson
 [ruptures]: https://github.com/deepcharles/ruptures
 [OpenTimelineIO]: https://github.com/AcademySoftwareFoundation/OpenTimelineIO
 [PyTables]: https://github.com/PyTables/PyTables
-[Parselmouth]: https://github.com/YannickJadoul/Parselmouth
 [google neuroglancer]: https://github.com/google/neuroglancer
+[Parselmouth]: https://github.com/YannickJadoul/Parselmouth
 [DeepForest]: https://github.com/LAMDA-NJU/Deep-Forest
 [AutoPy]: https://github.com/autopilot-rs/autopy
 [H3-py]: https://github.com/uber/h3-py
 [mosec]: https://github.com/mosecorg/mosec
-[Picologging]: https://github.com/microsoft/picologging
 [time-machine]: https://github.com/adamchainz/time-machine
+[Picologging]: https://github.com/microsoft/picologging
 [markupsafe]: https://github.com/pallets/markupsafe
 [Rtree]: https://github.com/Toblerity/rtree
 [pybind11 cmake_example]: https://github.com/pybind/cmake_example
@@ -192,16 +191,16 @@ title: Working examples
 [abess]: https://github.com/abess-team/abess
 [sourmash]: https://github.com/sourmash-bio/sourmash
 [cyvcf2]: https://github.com/brentp/cyvcf2
-[matrixprofile]: https://github.com/matrix-profile-foundation/matrixprofile
 [jq.py]: https://github.com/mwilliamson/jq.py
+[matrixprofile]: https://github.com/matrix-profile-foundation/matrixprofile
 [iminuit]: https://github.com/scikit-hep/iminuit
 [Tokenizer]: https://github.com/OpenNMT/Tokenizer
 [keyvi]: https://github.com/KeyviDev/keyvi
-[PyGLM]: https://github.com/Zuzu-Typ/PyGLM
 [pillow-heif]: https://github.com/bigcat88/pillow_heif
+[PyGLM]: https://github.com/Zuzu-Typ/PyGLM
 [TgCrypto]: https://github.com/pyrogram/tgcrypto
-[streaming-form-data]: https://github.com/siddhantgoel/streaming-form-data
 [iDynTree]: https://github.com/robotology/idyntree
+[streaming-form-data]: https://github.com/siddhantgoel/streaming-form-data
 [bx-python]: https://github.com/bxlab/bx-python
 [boost-histogram]: https://github.com/scikit-hep/boost-histogram
 [power-grid-model]: https://github.com/PowerGridModel/power-grid-model
@@ -212,6 +211,7 @@ title: Working examples
 [Arbor]: https://github.com/arbor-sim/arbor
 [pybind11 scikit_build_example]: https://github.com/pybind/scikit_build_example
 [polaroid]: https://github.com/daggy1234/polaroid
+[Confluent client for Kafka]: https://github.com/confluentinc/confluent-kafka-python
 [clang-format]: https://github.com/ssciwr/clang-format-wheel
 [etebase-py]: https://github.com/etesync/etebase-py
 [cf-units]: https://github.com/SciTools/cf-units
@@ -219,13 +219,13 @@ title: Working examples
 [numpythia]: https://github.com/scikit-hep/numpythia
 [pyjet]: https://github.com/scikit-hep/pyjet
 [ril]: https://github.com/Cryptex-github/ril-py
-[GSD]: https://github.com/glotzerlab/gsd
 [SiPM]: https://github.com/EdoPro98/SimSiPM
+[GSD]: https://github.com/glotzerlab/gsd
 [aalink]: https://github.com/artfwo/aalink
 [CorrectionLib]: https://github.com/cms-nanoAOD/correctionlib
 [xmlstarlet]: https://github.com/dimitern/xmlstarlet
-[pyinstrument_cext]: https://github.com/joerick/pyinstrument_cext
 [werpy]: https://github.com/analyticsinmotion/werpy
+[pyinstrument_cext]: https://github.com/joerick/pyinstrument_cext
 [pybind11 cross build example]: https://github.com/wbarnha/pybind_cmake_example_crossbuild

 [appveyor icon]: data/readme_icons/appveyor.svg
@@ -1,18 +1,15 @@
 environment:
  matrix:
-    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: Ubuntu
-      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python37-x64-ubuntu"
-    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: Visual Studio 2015
-      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python37-x64-vs2015"
-    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: macos
-      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "python37-x64-macos"
+    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: Ubuntu2204
+      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "linux-x64"
+    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: Visual Studio 2022
+      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "windows-x64"
+    - APPVEYOR_BUILD_WORKER_IMAGE: macos-sonoma
+      APPVEYOR_JOB_NAME: "macos-x64"

-stack: python 3.7
+stack: python 3.12

-init:
- cmd: set PATH=C:\Python37;C:\Python37\Scripts;%PATH%
-
-install: python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+install: python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1

 build_script: python -m cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ jobs:
    - bash: |
        set -o errexit
        python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
-        pip3 install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+        pip3 install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
      displayName: Install dependencies
    - bash: cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse .
      displayName: Build wheels
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ jobs:
    - bash: |
        set -o errexit
        python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
-        python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+        python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
      displayName: Install dependencies
    - bash: cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse .
      displayName: Build wheels
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ jobs:
    - bash: |
        set -o errexit
        python -m pip install --upgrade pip
-        pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+        pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
      displayName: Install dependencies
    - bash: cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse .
      displayName: Build wheels
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ jobs:
      - run:
          name: Build the Linux wheels.
          command: |
-            python3 -m pip install --user cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+            python3 -m pip install --user cibuildwheel==2.21.1
            cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
      - store_artifacts:
          path: wheelhouse/
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ jobs:
      - run:
          name: Build the Linux aarch64 wheels.
          command: |
-            python3 -m pip install --user cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+            python3 -m pip install --user cibuildwheel==2.21.1
            python3 -m cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
      - store_artifacts:
          path: wheelhouse/
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ jobs:
          name: Build the OS X wheels.
          command: |
            sudo softwareupdate --install-rosetta --agree-to-license  # for python<=3.8 or x86_64/universal2 tests
-            pip3 install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+            pip3 install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
            cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
      - store_artifacts:
          path: wheelhouse/
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 build_and_store_wheels: &BUILD_AND_STORE_WHEELS
  install_cibuildwheel_script:
-    - python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+    - python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
  run_cibuildwheel_script:
    - cibuildwheel
  wheels_artifacts:
@@ -11,10 +11,11 @@ macos_task:
  name: Build macOS x86_64 and arm64 wheels.
  macos_instance:
    image: ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-sonoma-xcode
-
  env:
-    PATH: /opt/homebrew/opt/python@3.10/libexec/bin:$PATH
+    VENV_ROOT: ${HOME}/venv-cibuildwheel
+    PATH: ${VENV_ROOT}/bin:${PATH}
    CIBW_ARCHS_MACOS: x86_64 arm64
  install_pre_requirements_script:
-    - brew install python@3.10
+    - brew install python@3.12
+    - python3.12 -m venv ${VENV_ROOT}
  <<: *BUILD_AND_STORE_WHEELS
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 build_and_store_wheels: &BUILD_AND_STORE_WHEELS
  install_cibuildwheel_script:
-    - python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+    - python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
  run_cibuildwheel_script:
    - cibuildwheel
  wheels_artifacts:
@@ -15,9 +15,14 @@ linux_x86_task:
    platform: linux
    cpu: 4
    memory: 4G
-
+  env:
+    VENV_ROOT: ${HOME}/venv-cibuildwheel
+    PATH: ${VENV_ROOT}/bin:${PATH}
  install_pre_requirements_script:
-    - apt install -y python3-venv python-is-python3
+    - add-apt-repository -y ppa:deadsnakes/ppa
+    - apt-get update
+    - apt-get install -y python3.12-venv
+    - python3.12 -m venv ${VENV_ROOT}
  <<: *BUILD_AND_STORE_WHEELS

 linux_aarch64_task:
@@ -29,9 +34,14 @@ linux_aarch64_task:
    platform: linux
    cpu: 4
    memory: 4G
-
+  env:
+    VENV_ROOT: ${HOME}/venv-cibuildwheel
+    PATH: ${VENV_ROOT}/bin:${PATH}
  install_pre_requirements_script:
-    - apt install -y python3-venv python-is-python3
+    - add-apt-repository -y ppa:deadsnakes/ppa
+    - apt-get update
+    - apt-get install -y python3.12-venv
+    - python3.12 -m venv ${VENV_ROOT}
  <<: *BUILD_AND_STORE_WHEELS

 windows_x86_task:
@@ -42,7 +52,7 @@ windows_x86_task:
    memory: 4G

  install_pre_requirements_script:
-    - choco install -y --no-progress python3 --version 3.10.6
+    - choco install -y --no-progress python3 --version 3.12.4
    - refreshenv
    - echo PATH=%PATH% >> "%CIRRUS_ENV%"
  <<: *BUILD_AND_STORE_WHEELS
@@ -51,9 +61,10 @@ macos_arm64_task:
  name: Build macOS arm64 wheels.
  macos_instance:
    image: ghcr.io/cirruslabs/macos-sonoma-xcode
-
  env:
-    PATH: /opt/homebrew/opt/python@3.10/libexec/bin:$PATH
+    VENV_ROOT: ${HOME}/venv-cibuildwheel
+    PATH: ${VENV_ROOT}/bin:${PATH}
  install_pre_requirements_script:
-    - brew install python@3.10
+    - brew install python@3.12
+    - python3.12 -m venv ${VENV_ROOT}
  <<: *BUILD_AND_STORE_WHEELS
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ jobs:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4

      - name: Build wheels
-        uses: pypa/cibuildwheel@v2.19.2
+        uses: pypa/cibuildwheel@v2.21.1

      - uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
        with:
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ jobs:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4

      - name: Build wheels
-        uses: pypa/cibuildwheel@v2.19.2
+        uses: pypa/cibuildwheel@v2.21.1
        # env:
        #   CIBW_SOME_OPTION: value
        #    ...
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ jobs:
          platforms: all

      - name: Build wheels
-        uses: pypa/cibuildwheel@v2.19.2
+        uses: pypa/cibuildwheel@v2.21.1
        env:
          # configure cibuildwheel to build native archs ('auto'), and some
          # emulated ones
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ linux:
    DOCKER_TLS_CERTDIR: ""
  script:
    - curl -sSL https://get.docker.com/ | sh
-    - python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+    - python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
    - cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
  artifacts:
    paths:
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ windows:
  before_script:
    - choco install python -y --version 3.12.4
    - choco install git.install -y
-    - py -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+    - py -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
  script:
    - py -m cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse --platform windows
  artifacts:
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ windows:
 macos:
  image: macos-14-xcode-15
  before_script:
-    - python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+    - python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
  script:
    - python3 -m cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
  artifacts:
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 linux:
-  image: python:3.8
+  image: python:3.12
  # make a docker daemon available for cibuildwheel to use
  services:
    - name: docker:dind
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ linux:
    - curl -sSL https://get.docker.com/ | sh
    # Warning: This is extremely slow, be careful with how many wheels you build
    - docker run --rm --privileged multiarch/qemu-user-static --reset -p yes
-    - python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+    - python -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1
    # Assuming your CI runner's default architecture is x86_64...
    - cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse --platform linux --archs aarch64
  artifacts:
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 os: linux
 dist: focal
 language: python
-python: "3.9"
+python: "3.12"

 jobs:
  include:
@@ -14,13 +14,13 @@ jobs:
    - os: windows
      language: shell
      before_install:
-        - choco upgrade python -y --version 3.8.6
-        - export PATH="/c/Python38:/c/Python38/Scripts:$PATH"
+        - choco upgrade python -y --version 3.12.4
+        - export PATH="/c/Python312:/c/Python312/Scripts:$PATH"
        # make sure it's on PATH as 'python3'
-        - ln -s /c/Python38/python.exe /c/Python38/python3.exe
+        - ln -s /c/Python312/python.exe /c/Python312/python3.exe

 install:
-  - python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+  - python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1

 script:
  # build the wheels, put them into './dist'
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 os: linux
 dist: focal
 language: python
-python: "3.9"
+python: "3.12"

 jobs:
  include:
@@ -20,13 +20,13 @@ jobs:
    - os: windows
      language: shell
      before_install:
-        - choco upgrade python -y --version 3.8.6
-        - export PATH="/c/Python38:/c/Python38/Scripts:$PATH"
+        - choco upgrade python -y --version 3.12.4
+        - export PATH="/c/Python312:/c/Python312/Scripts:$PATH"
        # make sure it's on PATH as 'python3'
-        - ln -s /c/Python38/python.exe /c/Python38/python3.exe
+        - ln -s /c/Python312/python.exe /c/Python312/python3.exe

 install:
-  - python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2
+  - python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1

 script:
  # build the wheels, put them into './wheelhouse'
@@ -8,17 +8,15 @@
 os: linux
 dist: focal
 language: python
-python:
-  - 3.7
-  - 3.8
+python: "3.12"

 before_install:
  - |
    if [[ "$TRAVIS_OS_NAME" = windows ]]; then
-        choco upgrade python -y --version 3.8.6
-        export PATH="/c/Python38:/c/Python38/Scripts:$PATH"
+        choco upgrade python -y --version 3.12.4
+        export PATH="/c/Python312:/c/Python312/Scripts:$PATH"
        # make sure it's on PATH as 'python3'
-        ln -s /c/Python38/python.exe /c/Python38/python3.exe
+        ln -s /c/Python312/python.exe /c/Python312/python3.exe
    fi

 install:
@@ -54,7 +52,7 @@ jobs:
    - stage: deploy
      name: Build and deploy Linux wheels
      services: docker
-      install: python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2 twine
+      install: python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1 twine
      script: python3 -m cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
      after_success: python3 -m twine upload --skip-existing wheelhouse/*.whl
    # Deploy on windows
@@ -62,7 +60,7 @@ jobs:
      name: Build and deploy Windows wheels
      os: windows
      language: shell
-      install: python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.19.2 twine
+      install: python3 -m pip install cibuildwheel==2.21.1 twine
      script: python3 -m cibuildwheel --output-dir wheelhouse
      after_success: python3 -m twine upload --skip-existing wheelhouse/*.whl

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ build-backend = "hatchling.build"

 [project]
 name = "cibuildwheel"
-version = "2.19.2"
+version = "2.21.1"
 description = "Build Python wheels on CI with minimal configuration."
 readme = "README.md"
 license = "BSD-2-Clause"
@@ -64,9 +64,9 @@ dev = [
 ]
 docs = [
    "jinja2>=3.1.2",
-    "mkdocs-include-markdown-plugin==2.8.0",
+    "mkdocs-include-markdown-plugin==6.2.2",
    "mkdocs-macros-plugin",
-    "mkdocs==1.3.1",
+    "mkdocs==1.6.1",
    "pymdown-extensions",
 ]
 test = [
@@ -75,6 +75,7 @@ test = [
    "pytest-timeout",
    "pytest-xdist",
    "pytest>=6",
+    "setuptools",
    "tomli_w",
    "validate-pyproject",
 ]
@@ -93,12 +94,7 @@ Homepage = "https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel"

 [tool.pytest.ini_options]
 minversion = "6.0"
-addopts = [
-  "-rfEsX",  # TODO: replace with -ra when pytest > 8.2.2 is released
-  "--showlocals",
-  "--strict-markers",
-  "--strict-config",
-]
+addopts = ["-ra", "--showlocals", "--strict-markers", "--strict-config"]
 junit_family = "xunit2"
 xfail_strict = true
 filterwarnings = ["error"]
@@ -140,6 +136,8 @@ disallow_untyped_decorators = true
 [[tool.mypy.overrides]]
 module = [
    "setuptools",
+    "setuptools._distutils", # needed even if only directly import setuptools._distutils.util
+    "setuptools._distutils.util",
    "pytest", # ignored in pre-commit to speed up check
    "bashlex",
    "bashlex.*",
@@ -186,10 +184,8 @@ messages_control.disable = [
 ]

 [tool.ruff]
-target-version = "py38"
 line-length = 100

-
 [tool.ruff.lint]
 extend-select = [
  "B",           # flake8-bugbear
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ def build_frontend_env_nouv(request: pytest.FixtureRequest) -> dict[str, str]:
    return {"CIBW_BUILD_FRONTEND": frontend}


-@pytest.fixture()
+@pytest.fixture
 def build_frontend_env(build_frontend_env_nouv: dict[str, str]) -> dict[str, str]:
    frontend = build_frontend_env_nouv["CIBW_BUILD_FRONTEND"]
    if frontend != "build" or platform == "pyodide" or find_uv() is None:
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ def build_frontend_env(build_frontend_env_nouv: dict[str, str]) -> dict[str, str
    return {"CIBW_BUILD_FRONTEND": "build[uv]"}


-@pytest.fixture()
+@pytest.fixture
 def docker_cleanup() -> Generator[None, None, None]:
    def get_images() -> set[str]:
        if detect_ci_provider() is None or platform != "linux":
@@ -69,7 +69,15 @@ def test_build_identifiers(tmp_path):
    ), f"{expected_wheels} vs {build_identifiers}"


-def test_allow_empty(tmp_path):
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("add_args", "env_allow_empty"),
+    [
+        (["--allow-empty"], {}),
+        (["--allow-empty"], {"CIBW_ALLOW_EMPTY": "0"}),
+        (None, {"CIBW_ALLOW_EMPTY": "1"}),
+    ],
+)
+def test_allow_empty(tmp_path, add_args, env_allow_empty):
    project_dir = tmp_path / "project"
    basic_project.generate(project_dir)

@@ -77,8 +85,8 @@ def test_allow_empty(tmp_path):
    # without error
    actual_wheels = utils.cibuildwheel_run(
        project_dir,
-        add_env={"CIBW_BUILD": "BUILD_NOTHING_AT_ALL"},
-        add_args=["--allow-empty"],
+        add_env={"CIBW_BUILD": "BUILD_NOTHING_AT_ALL", **env_allow_empty},
+        add_args=add_args,
    )

    # check that nothing was built
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ def test_podman(tmp_path, capfd, request):
    actual_wheels = utils.cibuildwheel_run(
        project_dir,
        add_env={
-            "CIBW_ARCHS": "x86_64",
+            "CIBW_ARCHS": "native",
            "CIBW_BEFORE_ALL": "echo 'test log statement from before-all'",
            "CIBW_CONTAINER_ENGINE": "podman",
        },
@@ -29,9 +29,7 @@ def test_podman(tmp_path, capfd, request):
    )

    # check that the expected wheels are produced
-    expected_wheels = [
-        w for w in utils.expected_wheels("spam", "0.1.0", single_python=True) if "x86_64" in w
-    ]
+    expected_wheels = utils.expected_wheels("spam", "0.1.0", single_python=True, single_arch=True)
    assert set(actual_wheels) == set(expected_wheels)

    # check that stdout is bring passed-though from container correctly
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ def test(tmp_path, capfd):
    else:
        expectation = does_not_raise()

-    with expectation:
+    with expectation as exc_info:
        result = utils.cibuildwheel_run(
            project_dir,
            add_env={
@@ -49,6 +49,7 @@ def test(tmp_path, capfd):
    captured = capfd.readouterr()
    if num_builds > 1:
        assert "Build failed because a wheel named" in captured.err
+        assert exc_info.value.returncode == 6
    else:
        # We only produced one wheel (currently Pyodide)
        # check that it has the right name
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ import textwrap

 import pytest

-from cibuildwheel.util import CIBW_CACHE_PATH
+from cibuildwheel.util import CIBW_CACHE_PATH, CIProvider, detect_ci_provider

 from . import test_projects, utils

@@ -49,6 +49,9 @@ def test_pyodide_build(tmp_path, use_pyproject_toml):
    if not shutil.which("python3.12"):
        pytest.skip("Python 3.12 not installed")

+    if detect_ci_provider() == CIProvider.travis_ci:
+        pytest.skip("Python 3.12 is just a non-working pyenv shim")
+
    if use_pyproject_toml:
        basic_project.files["pyproject.toml"] = textwrap.dedent(
            """
@@ -31,10 +31,11 @@ def test(tmp_path, capfd):
    project_dir = tmp_path / "project"
    pure_python_project.generate(project_dir)

-    with pytest.raises(subprocess.CalledProcessError):
+    with pytest.raises(subprocess.CalledProcessError) as exc_info:
        print("produced wheels:", utils.cibuildwheel_run(project_dir))

    captured = capfd.readouterr()
    print("out", captured.out)
    print("err", captured.err)
+    assert exc_info.value.returncode == 5
    assert "Build failed because a pure Python wheel was generated" in captured.err
@@ -23,15 +23,14 @@ EMULATED_ARCHS: Final[list[str]] = sorted(
 )
 SINGLE_PYTHON_VERSION: Final[tuple[int, int]] = (3, 12)

-platform: str
-
-if "CIBW_PLATFORM" in os.environ:
-    platform = os.environ["CIBW_PLATFORM"]
+platform = os.environ.get("CIBW_PLATFORM", "")
+if platform:
+    pass
 elif sys.platform.startswith("linux"):
    platform = "linux"
 elif sys.platform.startswith("darwin"):
    platform = "macos"
-elif sys.platform in ["win32", "cygwin"]:
+elif sys.platform.startswith(("win32", "cygwin")):
    platform = "windows"
 else:
    msg = f"Unsupported platform {sys.platform!r}"
@@ -275,25 +274,27 @@ def expected_wheels(
                platform_tags = ["win32", "win_amd64"]

        elif platform == "macos":
+            if python_abi_tag.startswith("pp"):
+                if python_abi_tag.startswith(("pp37", "pp38")):
+                    min_macosx = macosx_deployment_target
+                else:
+                    min_macosx = _floor_macosx(macosx_deployment_target, "10.15")
+            elif python_abi_tag.startswith("cp"):
+                if python_abi_tag.startswith(("cp36", "cp37", "cp38", "cp39", "cp310", "cp311")):
+                    min_macosx = macosx_deployment_target
+                else:
+                    min_macosx = _floor_macosx(macosx_deployment_target, "10.13")
+            else:
+                min_macosx = macosx_deployment_target
+
            if machine_arch == "arm64":
-                arm64_macosx = _floor_macosx(macosx_deployment_target, "11.0")
+                arm64_macosx = _floor_macosx(min_macosx, "11.0")
                platform_tags = [f'macosx_{arm64_macosx.replace(".", "_")}_arm64']
            else:
-                if python_abi_tag.startswith("pp") and not python_abi_tag.startswith(
-                    ("pp37", "pp38")
-                ):
-                    pypy_macosx = _floor_macosx(macosx_deployment_target, "10.15")
-                    platform_tags = [f'macosx_{pypy_macosx.replace(".", "_")}_x86_64']
-                elif python_abi_tag.startswith("cp313"):
-                    pypy_macosx = _floor_macosx(macosx_deployment_target, "10.13")
-                    platform_tags = [f'macosx_{pypy_macosx.replace(".", "_")}_x86_64']
-                else:
-                    platform_tags = [f'macosx_{macosx_deployment_target.replace(".", "_")}_x86_64']
+                platform_tags = [f'macosx_{min_macosx.replace(".", "_")}_x86_64']

            if include_universal2:
-                platform_tags.append(
-                    f'macosx_{macosx_deployment_target.replace(".", "_")}_universal2',
-                )
+                platform_tags.append(f'macosx_{min_macosx.replace(".", "_")}_universal2')
        else:
            msg = f"Unsupported platform {platform!r}"
            raise Exception(msg)
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ def test_build():
    assert build_selector("cp310-manylinux_x86_64")
    assert build_selector("cp311-manylinux_x86_64")
    assert build_selector("cp312-manylinux_x86_64")
-    assert not build_selector("cp313-manylinux_x86_64")
+    assert build_selector("cp313-manylinux_x86_64")
    assert build_selector("pp36-manylinux_x86_64")
    assert build_selector("pp37-manylinux_x86_64")
    assert build_selector("cp36-manylinux_i686")
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ def test_build():
    assert build_selector("cp310-win_amd64")
    assert build_selector("cp311-win_amd64")
    assert build_selector("cp312-win_amd64")
-    assert not build_selector("cp313-win_amd64")
+    assert build_selector("cp313-win_amd64")
    assert not build_selector("pp36-win_amd64")
    assert not build_selector("pp37-win_amd64")

@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ def pytest_addoption(parser):
    )


-@pytest.fixture()
+@pytest.fixture
 def fake_package_dir(tmp_path, monkeypatch):
    """
    Monkey-patch enough for the main() function to run
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+import contextlib
+import sys
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Dict
+
+import pytest
+import setuptools._distutils.util
+
+from cibuildwheel.errors import FatalError
+from cibuildwheel.util import CIProvider, detect_ci_provider
+from cibuildwheel.windows import PythonConfiguration, setup_setuptools_cross_compile
+
+# monkeypatching os.name is too flaky. E.g. It works on my machine, but fails in pipeline
+if not sys.platform.startswith("win"):
+    pytest.skip("Windows-only tests", allow_module_level=True)
+
+
+@contextlib.contextmanager
+def patched_environment(monkeypatch: pytest.MonkeyPatch, environment: Dict[str, str]):
+    with monkeypatch.context() as mp:
+        for envvar, val in environment.items():
+            mp.setenv(name=envvar, value=val)
+        yield
+
+
+def test_x86(tmp_path: Path, monkeypatch: pytest.MonkeyPatch):
+    arch = "32"
+    environment: Dict[str, str] = {}
+
+    configuration = PythonConfiguration("irrelevant", arch, "irrelevant", None)
+
+    setup_setuptools_cross_compile(tmp_path, configuration, tmp_path, environment)
+    with patched_environment(monkeypatch, environment):
+        target_platform = setuptools._distutils.util.get_platform()
+
+    assert environment["VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH"] == "x86"
+    assert target_platform == "win32"
+
+
+def test_x64(tmp_path: Path, monkeypatch: pytest.MonkeyPatch):
+    arch = "64"
+    environment: Dict[str, str] = {}
+
+    configuration = PythonConfiguration("irrelevant", arch, "irrelevant", None)
+
+    setup_setuptools_cross_compile(tmp_path, configuration, tmp_path, environment)
+    with patched_environment(monkeypatch, environment):
+        target_platform = setuptools._distutils.util.get_platform()
+
+    assert environment["VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH"] == "x64"
+    assert target_platform == "win-amd64"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.skipif(
+    detect_ci_provider() == CIProvider.azure_pipelines, reason="arm64 not recognised on azure"
+)
+def test_arm(tmp_path: Path, monkeypatch: pytest.MonkeyPatch):
+    arch = "ARM64"
+    environment: Dict[str, str] = {}
+
+    configuration = PythonConfiguration("irrelevant", arch, "irrelevant", None)
+
+    setup_setuptools_cross_compile(tmp_path, configuration, tmp_path, environment)
+    with patched_environment(monkeypatch, environment):
+        target_platform = setuptools._distutils.util.get_platform()
+
+    assert environment["VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH"] == "arm64"
+    assert target_platform == "win-arm64"
+
+
+def test_env_set(tmp_path: Path):
+    arch = "32"
+    environment = {"VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH": "x64"}
+
+    configuration = PythonConfiguration("irrelevant", arch, "irrelevant", None)
+
+    with pytest.raises(FatalError, match="VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH"):
+        setup_setuptools_cross_compile(tmp_path, configuration, tmp_path, environment)
+
+
+def test_env_blank(tmp_path: Path, monkeypatch: pytest.MonkeyPatch):
+    arch = "32"
+    environment = {"VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH": ""}
+
+    configuration = PythonConfiguration("irrelevant", arch, "irrelevant", None)
+
+    setup_setuptools_cross_compile(tmp_path, configuration, tmp_path, environment)
+    with patched_environment(monkeypatch, environment):
+        target_platform = setuptools._distutils.util.get_platform()
+
+    assert environment["VSCMD_ARG_TGT_ARCH"] == "x86"
+    assert target_platform == "win32"
@@ -71,9 +71,10 @@ def test_linux_container_split(tmp_path: Path, monkeypatch):
        "cp36-manylinux_x86_64",
        "cp311-manylinux_x86_64",
        "cp312-manylinux_x86_64",
+        "cp313-manylinux_x86_64",
    ]
-    assert before_alls(build_steps[0]) == [""] * 3
-    assert container_engines(build_steps[0]) == [default_container_engine] * 3
+    assert before_alls(build_steps[0]) == [""] * 4
+    assert container_engines(build_steps[0]) == [default_container_engine] * 4

    assert build_steps[1].container_image == "other_container_image"
    assert identifiers(build_steps[1]) == ["cp37-manylinux_x86_64", "cp38-manylinux_x86_64"]
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ def mock_protection(monkeypatch):


@pytest.fixture(autouse=True)
-def fake_package_dir_autouse(fake_package_dir):  # noqa: ARG001
+def fake_package_dir_autouse(fake_package_dir):
    pass


@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ def disable_print_wheels(monkeypatch):
    monkeypatch.setattr(util, "print_new_wheels", empty_cm)


-@pytest.fixture()
+@pytest.fixture
 def allow_empty(monkeypatch, fake_package_dir):
    monkeypatch.setattr(sys, "argv", [*fake_package_dir, "--allow-empty"])

@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ def platform(request, monkeypatch):
    return platform_value


-@pytest.fixture()
+@pytest.fixture
 def intercepted_build_args(monkeypatch):
    intercepted = ArgsInterceptor()

@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ from cibuildwheel.architecture import Architecture
 from ..conftest import MOCK_PACKAGE_DIR


-@pytest.mark.parametrize("option_value", [None, "auto"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("option_value", [None, "auto", ""])
 def test_platform_unset_or_auto(monkeypatch, intercepted_build_args, option_value):
    if option_value is None:
        monkeypatch.delenv("CIBW_PLATFORM", raising=False)
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import platform
 import random
 import shutil
 import subprocess
+import sys
 import textwrap
 from pathlib import Path, PurePath, PurePosixPath

@@ -13,7 +14,7 @@ import pytest
 import tomli_w

 from cibuildwheel.environment import EnvironmentAssignmentBash
-from cibuildwheel.oci_container import OCIContainer, OCIContainerEngineConfig
+from cibuildwheel.oci_container import OCIContainer, OCIContainerEngineConfig, OCIPlatform
 from cibuildwheel.util import CIProvider, detect_ci_provider

 # Test utilities
@@ -28,6 +29,14 @@ elif pm in {"aarch64", "arm64"}:
    DEFAULT_IMAGE = DEFAULT_IMAGE_TEMPLATE.format(machine="aarch64")
 else:
    DEFAULT_IMAGE = ""
+DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM = {
+    "AMD64": OCIPlatform.AMD64,
+    "x86_64": OCIPlatform.AMD64,
+    "ppc64le": OCIPlatform.PPC64LE,
+    "s390x": OCIPlatform.S390X,
+    "aarch64": OCIPlatform.ARM64,
+    "arm64": OCIPlatform.ARM64,
+}[pm]

 PODMAN = OCIContainerEngineConfig(name="podman")

@@ -63,24 +72,32 @@ def container_engine(request):


 def test_simple(container_engine):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        assert container.call(["echo", "hello"], capture_output=True) == "hello\n"


 def test_no_lf(container_engine):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        assert container.call(["printf", "hello"], capture_output=True) == "hello"


 def test_debug_info(container_engine):
-    container = OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE)
+    container = OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    )
    print(container.debug_info())
    with container:
        pass


 def test_environment(container_engine):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        assert (
            container.call(
                ["sh", "-c", "echo $TEST_VAR"], env={"TEST_VAR": "1"}, capture_output=True
@@ -92,7 +109,9 @@ def test_environment(container_engine):
 def test_environment_pass(container_engine, monkeypatch):
    monkeypatch.setenv("CIBUILDWHEEL", "1")
    monkeypatch.setenv("SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH", "1489957071")
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        assert container.call(["sh", "-c", "echo $CIBUILDWHEEL"], capture_output=True) == "1\n"
        assert (
            container.call(["sh", "-c", "echo $SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH"], capture_output=True)
@@ -102,14 +121,23 @@ def test_environment_pass(container_engine, monkeypatch):

 def test_cwd(container_engine):
    with OCIContainer(
-        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, cwd="/cibuildwheel/working_directory"
+        engine=container_engine,
+        image=DEFAULT_IMAGE,
+        oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM,
+        cwd="/cibuildwheel/working_directory",
    ) as container:
        assert container.call(["pwd"], capture_output=True) == "/cibuildwheel/working_directory\n"
        assert container.call(["pwd"], capture_output=True, cwd="/opt") == "/opt\n"


+@pytest.mark.skipif(
+    pm == "s390x" and detect_ci_provider() == CIProvider.travis_ci,
+    reason="test is flaky on this platform, see https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel/pull/1961#issuecomment-2334678966",
+)
 def test_container_removed(container_engine):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        docker_containers_listing = subprocess.run(
            f"{container.engine.name} container ls",
            shell=True,
@@ -141,7 +169,9 @@ def test_large_environment(container_engine):
        "d": "0" * long_env_var_length,
    }

-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        # check the length of d
        assert (
            container.call(["sh", "-c", "echo ${#d}"], env=large_environment, capture_output=True)
@@ -150,7 +180,9 @@ def test_large_environment(container_engine):


 def test_binary_output(container_engine):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        # note: the below embedded snippets are in python2

        # check that we can pass though arbitrary binary data without erroring
@@ -200,7 +232,9 @@ def test_binary_output(container_engine):


 def test_file_operation(tmp_path: Path, container_engine):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        # test copying a file in
        test_binary_data = bytes(random.randrange(256) for _ in range(1000))
        original_test_file = tmp_path / "test.dat"
@@ -210,12 +244,17 @@ def test_file_operation(tmp_path: Path, container_engine):

        container.copy_into(original_test_file, dst_file)

+        owner = container.call(["stat", "-c", "%u:%g", dst_file], capture_output=True).strip()
+        assert owner == "0:0"
+
        output = container.call(["cat", dst_file], capture_output=True)
        assert test_binary_data == bytes(output, encoding="utf8", errors="surrogateescape")


 def test_dir_operations(tmp_path: Path, container_engine):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        test_binary_data = bytes(random.randrange(256) for _ in range(1000))
        original_test_file = tmp_path / "test.dat"
        original_test_file.write_bytes(test_binary_data)
@@ -230,6 +269,12 @@ def test_dir_operations(tmp_path: Path, container_engine):
        dst_file = dst_dir / "test.dat"
        container.copy_into(test_dir, dst_dir)

+        owner = container.call(["stat", "-c", "%u:%g", dst_dir], capture_output=True).strip()
+        assert owner == "0:0"
+
+        owner = container.call(["stat", "-c", "%u:%g", dst_file], capture_output=True).strip()
+        assert owner == "0:0"
+
        output = container.call(["cat", dst_file], capture_output=True)
        assert test_binary_data == bytes(output, encoding="utf8", errors="surrogateescape")

@@ -240,11 +285,18 @@ def test_dir_operations(tmp_path: Path, container_engine):
        new_test_dir = tmp_path / "test_dir_new"
        container.copy_out(dst_dir, new_test_dir)

+        assert os.getuid() == new_test_dir.stat().st_uid
+        assert os.getgid() == new_test_dir.stat().st_gid
+        assert os.getuid() == (new_test_dir / "test.dat").stat().st_uid
+        assert os.getgid() == (new_test_dir / "test.dat").stat().st_gid
+
        assert test_binary_data == (new_test_dir / "test.dat").read_bytes()


 def test_environment_executor(container_engine):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        assignment = EnvironmentAssignmentBash("TEST=$(echo 42)")
        assert assignment.evaluated_value({}, container.environment_executor) == "42"

@@ -252,6 +304,8 @@ def test_environment_executor(container_engine):
 def test_podman_vfs(tmp_path: Path, monkeypatch, container_engine):
    if container_engine.name != "podman":
        pytest.skip("only runs with podman")
+    if sys.platform.startswith("darwin"):
+        pytest.skip("Skipping test because podman on this platform does not support vfs")

    # create the VFS configuration
    vfs_path = tmp_path / "podman_vfs"
@@ -309,7 +363,9 @@ def test_podman_vfs(tmp_path: Path, monkeypatch, container_engine):
    monkeypatch.setenv("CONTAINERS_CONF", str(vfs_containers_conf_fpath))
    monkeypatch.setenv("CONTAINERS_STORAGE_CONF", str(vfs_containers_storage_conf_fpath))

-    with OCIContainer(engine=PODMAN, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=PODMAN, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        # test running a command
        assert container.call(["echo", "hello"], capture_output=True) == "hello\n"

@@ -346,6 +402,7 @@ def test_create_args_volume(tmp_path: Path, container_engine):
    with OCIContainer(
        engine=container_engine,
        image=DEFAULT_IMAGE,
+        oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM,
    ) as container:
        assert container.call(["cat", "/test_mount/test_file.txt"], capture_output=True) == "1234"

@@ -388,24 +445,47 @@ def test_create_args_volume(tmp_path: Path, container_engine):
            "docker",
            ("--some-option=value; with; semicolons", "--another-option"),
        ),
+        (
+            "docker; create_args: --platform=linux/amd64",
+            "docker",
+            (),
+        ),
+        (
+            "podman; create_args: --platform=linux/amd64",
+            "podman",
+            (),
+        ),
+        (
+            "docker; create_args: --platform linux/amd64",
+            "docker",
+            (),
+        ),
+        (
+            "podman; create_args: --platform linux/amd64",
+            "podman",
+            (),
+        ),
    ],
 )
-def test_parse_engine_config(config, name, create_args):
+def test_parse_engine_config(config, name, create_args, capsys):
    engine_config = OCIContainerEngineConfig.from_config_string(config)
    assert engine_config.name == name
    assert engine_config.create_args == create_args
+    if "--platform" in config:
+        captured = capsys.readouterr()
+        assert (
+            "Using '--platform' in 'container-engine::create_args' is deprecated. It will be ignored."
+            in captured.err
+        )


@pytest.mark.skipif(pm != "x86_64", reason="Only runs on x86_64")
-@pytest.mark.parametrize(
-    ("image", "shell_args"),
-    [
-        (DEFAULT_IMAGE_TEMPLATE.format(machine="i686"), ["/bin/bash"]),
-        (DEFAULT_IMAGE_TEMPLATE.format(machine="x86_64"), ["linux32", "/bin/bash"]),
-    ],
-)
-def test_enforce_32_bit(container_engine, image, shell_args):
-    with OCIContainer(engine=container_engine, image=image, enforce_32_bit=True) as container:
+def test_enforce_32_bit(container_engine):
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine,
+        image=DEFAULT_IMAGE_TEMPLATE.format(machine="i686"),
+        oci_platform=OCIPlatform.i386,
+    ) as container:
        assert container.call(["uname", "-m"], capture_output=True).strip() == "i686"
        container_args = subprocess.run(
            f"{container.engine.name} inspect -f '{{{{json .Args }}}}' {container.name}",
@@ -414,7 +494,7 @@ def test_enforce_32_bit(container_engine, image, shell_args):
            stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
            text=True,
        ).stdout
-        assert json.loads(container_args) == shell_args
+        assert json.loads(container_args) == ["/bin/bash"]


@pytest.mark.parametrize(
@@ -428,16 +508,64 @@ def test_enforce_32_bit(container_engine, image, shell_args):
 def test_disable_host_mount(tmp_path: Path, container_engine, config, should_have_host_mount):
    if detect_ci_provider() in {CIProvider.circle_ci, CIProvider.gitlab}:
        pytest.skip("Skipping test because docker on this platform does not support host mounts")
+    if sys.platform.startswith("darwin"):
+        pytest.skip("Skipping test because docker on this platform does not support host mounts")

    engine = OCIContainerEngineConfig.from_config_string(config.format(name=container_engine.name))

    sentinel_file = tmp_path / "sentinel"
    sentinel_file.write_text("12345")

-    with OCIContainer(engine=engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE) as container:
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=engine, image=DEFAULT_IMAGE, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ) as container:
        host_mount_path = "/host" + str(sentinel_file)
        if should_have_host_mount:
            assert container.call(["cat", host_mount_path], capture_output=True) == "12345"
        else:
            with pytest.raises(subprocess.CalledProcessError):
                container.call(["cat", host_mount_path], capture_output=True)
+
+
+def test_local_image(container_engine):
+    local_image = f"cibw_test_{container_engine.name}_local:latest"
+    subprocess.run(
+        [container_engine.name, "pull", f"--platform={DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM.value}", DEFAULT_IMAGE],
+        check=True,
+    )
+    subprocess.run([container_engine.name, "image", "tag", DEFAULT_IMAGE, local_image], check=True)
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image=local_image, oci_platform=DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ):
+        pass
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("platform", list(OCIPlatform))
+def test_multiarch_image(container_engine, platform):
+    if (
+        detect_ci_provider() in {CIProvider.travis_ci}
+        and pm in {"s390x", "ppc64le"}
+        and platform != DEFAULT_OCI_PLATFORM
+    ):
+        pytest.skip("Skipping test because docker on this platform does not support QEMU")
+    with OCIContainer(
+        engine=container_engine, image="debian:12-slim", oci_platform=platform
+    ) as container:
+        output = container.call(["uname", "-m"], capture_output=True)
+        output_map = {
+            OCIPlatform.i386: "i686",
+            OCIPlatform.AMD64: "x86_64",
+            OCIPlatform.ARM64: "aarch64",
+            OCIPlatform.PPC64LE: "ppc64le",
+            OCIPlatform.S390X: "s390x",
+        }
+        assert output_map[platform] == output.strip()
+        output = container.call(["dpkg", "--print-architecture"], capture_output=True)
+        output_map = {
+            OCIPlatform.i386: "i386",
+            OCIPlatform.AMD64: "amd64",
+            OCIPlatform.ARM64: "arm64",
+            OCIPlatform.PPC64LE: "ppc64el",
+            OCIPlatform.S390X: "s390x",
+        }
+        assert output_map[platform] == output.strip()
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ import pytest

 from cibuildwheel import linux, util
 from cibuildwheel.__main__ import main
+from cibuildwheel.oci_container import OCIPlatform

 ALL_IDS = {
    "cp36",
@@ -21,6 +22,7 @@ ALL_IDS = {
    "cp310",
    "cp311",
    "cp312",
+    "cp313",
    "pp37",
    "pp38",
    "pp39",
@@ -28,7 +30,7 @@ ALL_IDS = {
 }


-@pytest.fixture()
+@pytest.fixture
 def mock_build_container(monkeypatch):
    def fail_on_call(*args, **kwargs):
        msg = "This should never be called"
@@ -72,7 +74,7 @@ def test_build_default_launches(monkeypatch):
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[0][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_x86_64" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert not kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.AMD64

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {f"{x}-manylinux_x86_64" for x in ALL_IDS}
@@ -80,7 +82,7 @@ def test_build_default_launches(monkeypatch):
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[1][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_i686" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.i386

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {f"{x}-manylinux_i686" for x in ALL_IDS}
@@ -88,7 +90,7 @@ def test_build_default_launches(monkeypatch):
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[2][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_x86_64" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert not kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.AMD64

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {
@@ -98,7 +100,7 @@ def test_build_default_launches(monkeypatch):
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[3][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_i686" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.i386

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {f"{x}-musllinux_i686" for x in ALL_IDS if "pp" not in x}
@@ -141,7 +143,7 @@ before-all = "true"
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[0][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_x86_64" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert not kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.AMD64

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {"cp36-manylinux_x86_64"}
@@ -150,29 +152,30 @@ before-all = "true"
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[1][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_x86_64" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert not kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.AMD64

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {
        f"{x}-manylinux_x86_64"
-        for x in ALL_IDS - {"cp36", "cp310", "cp311", "cp312", "pp37", "pp38", "pp39", "pp310"}
+        for x in ALL_IDS
+        - {"cp36", "cp310", "cp311", "cp312", "cp313", "pp37", "pp38", "pp39", "pp310"}
    }
    assert kwargs["options"].build_options("cp37-manylinux_x86_64").before_all == ""

    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[2][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/manylinux_2_28_x86_64" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert not kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.AMD64
    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {
        f"{x}-manylinux_x86_64"
-        for x in ["cp310", "cp311", "cp312", "pp37", "pp38", "pp39", "pp310"]
+        for x in ["cp310", "cp311", "cp312", "cp313", "pp37", "pp38", "pp39", "pp310"]
    }

    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[3][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/manylinux2014_i686" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.i386

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {f"{x}-manylinux_i686" for x in ALL_IDS}
@@ -180,7 +183,7 @@ before-all = "true"
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[4][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_1_x86_64" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert not kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.AMD64

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {
@@ -190,7 +193,7 @@ before-all = "true"
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[5][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_x86_64" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert not kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.AMD64
    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {
        f"{x}-musllinux_x86_64" for x in ALL_IDS - {"cp36", "cp37", "cp38", "cp39"} if "pp" not in x
@@ -199,7 +202,7 @@ before-all = "true"
    kwargs = build_in_container.call_args_list[6][1]
    assert "quay.io/pypa/musllinux_1_2_i686" in kwargs["container"]["image"]
    assert kwargs["container"]["cwd"] == PurePosixPath("/project")
-    assert kwargs["container"]["enforce_32_bit"]
+    assert kwargs["container"]["oci_platform"] == OCIPlatform.i386

    identifiers = {x.identifier for x in kwargs["platform_configs"]}
    assert identifiers == {f"{x}-musllinux_i686" for x in ALL_IDS if "pp" not in x}
@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@ import pytest
 from cibuildwheel import errors
 from cibuildwheel.__main__ import get_build_identifiers, get_platform_module
 from cibuildwheel.bashlex_eval import local_environment_executor
-from cibuildwheel.environment import parse_environment
 from cibuildwheel.options import (
    CommandLineArguments,
    Options,
@@ -66,7 +65,7 @@ def test_options_1(tmp_path, monkeypatch):

    default_build_options = options.build_options(identifier=None)

-    assert default_build_options.environment == parse_environment('FOO="BAR"')
+    assert default_build_options.environment.as_dictionary(prev_environment={}) == {"FOO": "BAR"}

    all_pinned_container_images = _get_pinned_container_images()
    pinned_x86_64_container_image = all_pinned_container_images["x86_64"]
@@ -4,7 +4,15 @@ from pathlib import Path

 import pytest

-from cibuildwheel.options import ConfigOptionError, InheritRule, OptionsReader, _resolve_cascade
+from cibuildwheel.options import (
+    EnvironmentFormat,
+    InheritRule,
+    ListFormat,
+    OptionsReader,
+    OptionsReaderError,
+    ShlexTableFormat,
+    _resolve_cascade,
+)

 PYPROJECT_1 = """
 [tool.cibuildwheel]
@@ -37,42 +45,32 @@ def test_simple_settings(tmp_path, platform, fname):

    options_reader = OptionsReader(config_file_path, platform=platform, env={})

-    assert options_reader.get("build", env_plat=False, list_sep=" ") == "cp39*"
+    assert options_reader.get("build", option_format=ListFormat(" "), env_plat=False) == "cp39*"

    assert options_reader.get("test-command") == "pyproject"
-    assert options_reader.get("archs", list_sep=" ") == "auto"
+    assert options_reader.get("archs", option_format=ListFormat(" ")) == "auto"
    assert (
-        options_reader.get("test-requires", list_sep=" ")
+        options_reader.get("test-requires", option_format=ListFormat(" "))
        == {"windows": "something", "macos": "else", "linux": "other many"}[platform]
    )

    # Also testing options for support for both lists and tables
    assert (
-        options_reader.get("environment", table_format={"item": '{k}="{v}"', "sep": " "})
+        options_reader.get("environment", option_format=EnvironmentFormat())
        == 'THING="OTHER" FOO="BAR"'
    )
-    assert (
-        options_reader.get(
-            "environment", list_sep="x", table_format={"item": '{k}="{v}"', "sep": " "}
-        )
-        == 'THING="OTHER" FOO="BAR"'
-    )
-    assert options_reader.get("test-extras", list_sep=",") == "one,two"
-    assert (
-        options_reader.get(
-            "test-extras", list_sep=",", table_format={"item": '{k}="{v}"', "sep": " "}
-        )
-        == "one,two"
-    )
+    assert options_reader.get("test-extras", option_format=ListFormat(",")) == "one,two"

    assert options_reader.get("manylinux-x86_64-image") == "manylinux1"
    assert options_reader.get("manylinux-i686-image") == "manylinux2014"

-    with pytest.raises(ConfigOptionError):
-        options_reader.get("environment", list_sep=" ")
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError):
+        # fails because the option is a table and the option_format only works with lists
+        options_reader.get("environment", option_format=ListFormat(" "))

-    with pytest.raises(ConfigOptionError):
-        options_reader.get("test-extras", table_format={"item": '{k}="{v}"', "sep": " "})
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError):
+        # fails because the option is a list and the option_format only works with tables
+        options_reader.get("test-extras", option_format=ShlexTableFormat())


 def test_envvar_override(tmp_path, platform):
@@ -91,14 +89,14 @@ def test_envvar_override(tmp_path, platform):
        },
    )

-    assert options_reader.get("archs", list_sep=" ") == "auto"
+    assert options_reader.get("archs", option_format=ListFormat(" ")) == "auto"

-    assert options_reader.get("build", list_sep=" ") == "cp38*"
+    assert options_reader.get("build") == "cp38*"
    assert options_reader.get("manylinux-x86_64-image") == "manylinux_2_24"
    assert options_reader.get("manylinux-i686-image") == "manylinux2014"

    assert (
-        options_reader.get("test-requires", list_sep=" ")
+        options_reader.get("test-requires", option_format=ListFormat(" "))
        == {"windows": "docs", "macos": "docs", "linux": "scod"}[platform]
    )
    assert options_reader.get("test-command") == "mytest"
@@ -174,7 +172,7 @@ repairs-wheel-command = "repair-project-linux"
 """
    )

-    with pytest.raises(ConfigOptionError) as excinfo:
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError) as excinfo:
        OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})

    assert "repair-wheel-command" in str(excinfo.value)
@@ -191,7 +189,7 @@ repair_wheel_command = "repair-project-linux"
 """
    )

-    with pytest.raises(ConfigOptionError) as excinfo:
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError) as excinfo:
        OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})

    assert "repair-wheel-command" in str(excinfo.value)
@@ -205,7 +203,7 @@ def test_unexpected_table(tmp_path):
 repair-wheel-command = "repair-project-linux"
 """
    )
-    with pytest.raises(ConfigOptionError):
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError):
        OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})


@@ -219,8 +217,8 @@ build = ["1", "2"]
    )
    options_reader = OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})

-    assert options_reader.get("build", list_sep=", ") == "1, 2"
-    with pytest.raises(ConfigOptionError):
+    assert options_reader.get("build", option_format=ListFormat(", ")) == "1, 2"
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError):
        options_reader.get("build")


@@ -234,7 +232,7 @@ manylinux-x86_64-image = "manylinux1"
    )
    disallow = {"windows": {"manylinux-x86_64-image"}}
    OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", disallow=disallow, env={})
-    with pytest.raises(ConfigOptionError):
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError):
        OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="windows", disallow=disallow, env={})


@@ -305,7 +303,7 @@ def test_resolve_cascade_merge_list(ignore_empty, rule):
        (["b1", "b2"], rule),
        (None, InheritRule.NONE),
        ignore_empty=ignore_empty,
-        list_sep=" ",
+        option_format=ListFormat(" "),
    )

    if not ignore_empty:
@@ -326,24 +324,34 @@ def test_resolve_cascade_merge_dict(rule):
        (None, InheritRule.NONE),
        ({"value": "override"}, rule),
        (None, InheritRule.NONE),
-        table_format={"item": "{k}={v}", "sep": " "},
+        option_format=ShlexTableFormat(),
    )

    if rule == InheritRule.PREPEND:
-        assert answer == "value=override value=a1 base=b1"
+        assert answer == "value=a1 base=b1"
    elif rule == InheritRule.NONE:
        assert answer == "value=override"
    elif rule == InheritRule.APPEND:
-        assert answer == "value=a1 base=b1 value=override"
+        assert answer == "value=override base=b1"
+
+
+def test_resolve_cascade_merge_strings():
+    answer = _resolve_cascade(
+        ("value=a1 base=b1", InheritRule.NONE),
+        ("value=override", InheritRule.APPEND),
+        option_format=ShlexTableFormat(),
+    )
+    assert answer == "value=override base=b1"


 def test_resolve_cascade_merge_different_types():
    answer = _resolve_cascade(
-        ({"value": "a1", "base": "b1"}, InheritRule.NONE),
+        ("value=a1 base=b1", InheritRule.NONE),
        ({"value": "override"}, InheritRule.APPEND),
-        table_format={"item": "{k}={v}", "sep": " "},
+        ("extra_string_var=c1", InheritRule.APPEND),
+        option_format=ShlexTableFormat(),
    )
-    assert answer == "value=a1 base=b1 value=override"
+    assert answer == "value=override base=b1 extra_string_var=c1"


 PYPROJECT_2 = """
@@ -387,28 +395,28 @@ def test_pyproject_2(tmp_path, platform):
    pyproject_toml.write_text(PYPROJECT_2)

    options_reader = OptionsReader(config_file_path=pyproject_toml, platform=platform, env={})
-    assert options_reader.get("test-command", list_sep=" && ") == "pyproject"
+    assert options_reader.get("test-command", option_format=ListFormat(" && ")) == "pyproject"

    with options_reader.identifier("random"):
-        assert options_reader.get("test-command", list_sep=" && ") == "pyproject"
+        assert options_reader.get("test-command", option_format=ListFormat(" && ")) == "pyproject"

    with options_reader.identifier("cp37-something"):
        assert (
-            options_reader.get("test-command", list_sep=" && ")
+            options_reader.get("test-command", option_format=ListFormat(" && "))
            == "pyproject-override && override2 && pyproject"
        )
        assert (
-            options_reader.get("environment", table_format={"item": '{k}="{v}"', "sep": " "})
+            options_reader.get("environment", option_format=EnvironmentFormat())
            == 'FOO="BAR" HAM="EGGS" FOO="BAZ" PYTHON="MONTY"'
        )

    with options_reader.identifier("cp37-final"):
        assert (
-            options_reader.get("test-command", list_sep=" && ")
+            options_reader.get("test-command", option_format=ListFormat(" && "))
            == "extra-prepend && pyproject-override && override2 && pyproject && pyproject-finalize && finalize2 && extra-finalize"
        )
        assert (
-            options_reader.get("environment", table_format={"item": '{k}="{v}"', "sep": " "})
+            options_reader.get("environment", option_format=EnvironmentFormat())
            == 'FOO="BAR" HAM="EGGS" FOO="BAZ" PYTHON="MONTY"'
        )

@@ -426,7 +434,7 @@ test-command = "pyproject-override"
 """
    )

-    with pytest.raises(ConfigOptionError):
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError):
        OptionsReader(config_file_path=pyproject_toml, platform=platform, env={})


@@ -442,8 +450,8 @@ other = ["two", "three"]

    options_reader = OptionsReader(config_file_path=pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})
    assert (
-        options_reader.get("config-settings", table_format={"item": '{k}="{v}"', "sep": " "})
-        == 'example="one" other="two" other="three"'
+        options_reader.get("config-settings", option_format=ShlexTableFormat(pair_sep="=", sep=" "))
+        == "example=one other=two other=three"
    )


@@ -458,10 +466,8 @@ def test_pip_config_settings(tmp_path):

    options_reader = OptionsReader(config_file_path=pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})
    assert (
-        options_reader.get(
-            "config-settings", table_format={"item": "--config-settings='{k}=\"{v}\"'", "sep": " "}
-        )
-        == "--config-settings='--build-option=\"--use-mypyc\"'"
+        options_reader.get("config-settings", option_format=ShlexTableFormat(sep=" ", pair_sep="="))
+        == "--build-option=--use-mypyc"
    )


@@ -471,12 +477,16 @@ def test_overrides_inherit(tmp_path):
        """\
 [tool.cibuildwheel]
 before-all = ["before-all"]
+config-settings = {key1="value1", key2="value2", empty=""}

 [[tool.cibuildwheel.overrides]]
 select = "cp37*"
 inherit.before-all = "append"
 before-all = ["override1"]

+inherit.config-settings = "append"
+config-settings = {key3="value3", key2="override2"}
+
 [[tool.cibuildwheel.overrides]]
 select = "cp37*"
 inherit.before-all = "prepend"
@@ -486,9 +496,17 @@ before-all = ["override2"]

    options_reader = OptionsReader(config_file_path=pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})
    with options_reader.identifier("cp38-something"):
-        assert options_reader.get("before-all", list_sep=" && ") == "before-all"
+        assert options_reader.get("before-all", option_format=ListFormat(" && ")) == "before-all"
+        assert (
+            options_reader.get("config-settings", option_format=ShlexTableFormat())
+            == "key1=value1 key2=value2 empty=''"
+        )
    with options_reader.identifier("cp37-something"):
        assert (
-            options_reader.get("before-all", list_sep=" && ")
+            options_reader.get("before-all", option_format=ListFormat(" && "))
            == "override2 && before-all && override1"
        )
+        assert (
+            options_reader.get("config-settings", option_format=ShlexTableFormat())
+            == "key1=value1 key2=override2 empty='' key3=value3"
+        )